Psychoneuroimmunology of Stroke

Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 359-379

  Skinner, Robert ^a   Georgiou, Rachel ^b   Thornton, Peter ^a   Rothwell, Nancy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b HOPE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Central nervous system; CNS; Immune mediators; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALTEPLASE; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; CYTOKINE INDUCED NEUTROPHIL CHEMOATTRACTANT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENDOTHELIAL LEUKOCYTE ADHESION MOLECULE 1; GAMMA INTERFERON; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1 ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 1ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 6; LYMPHOCYTE FUNCTION ASSOCIATED ANTIGEN 1; PADGEM PROTEIN; PROSTAGLANDIN E2; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CLINICAL FEATURE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DEPRESSION; FATIGUE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK MANAGEMENT; SLEEP DISORDER; STROKE;

CYTOKINES; HUMANS; PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY; STROKE;

EID: 64649089287     PISSN: 08898561     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.010     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. Cheng Y.D., Al-Khoury L., and Zivin J.A. Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke: two decades of success and failure. NeuroRx 1 (2004) 36-45
2. Reith J., Jorgensen H.S., Pedersen P.M., et al. Body temperature in acute stroke: relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome. Lancet 347 (1996) 422-425
3. De Michele M., Touzani O., Foster A.C., et al. Corticotropin-releasing factor: effect on cerebral blood flow in physiologic and ischaemic conditions. Exp Brain Res 165 (2005) 375-382
4. Katsumata T., Katayama Y., Yonemori H., et al. Delayed administration of JTP-2942, a novel thyrotropin-releasing hormone analogue, improves cerebral blood flow and metabolism in rat postischaemic brain. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 28 (2001) 48-54
5. Nakamachi T., Endo S., Ohtaki H., et al. Orexin-1 receptor expression after global ischemia in mice. Regul Pept 126 (2005) 49-54
6. Schwarz S., Schwab S., Klinga K., et al. Neuroendocrine changes in patients with acute space occupying ischaemic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74 (2003) 725-727
7. Fassbender K., Schmidt R., Mossner R., et al. Pattern of activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in acute stroke. Relation to acute confusional state, extent of brain damage, and clinical outcome. Stroke 25 (1994) 1105-1108
8. Zeitoun K., and Carr B.R. Is there an increased risk of stroke associated with oral contraceptives?. Drug Saf 20 (1999) 467-473
9. Warlow C., Sudlow C., Dennis M., et al. Stroke. Lancet 362 (2003) 1211-1224
10. Bamford J., Sandercock P., Dennis M., et al. A prospective study of acute cerebrovascular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project 1981-86. 1. Methodology, demography and incident cases of first-ever stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 51 (1988) 1373-1380
11. Bamford J., Sandercock P., Dennis M., et al. Classification and natural history of clinically identifiable subtypes of cerebral infarction. Lancet 337 (1991) 1521-1526
12. Lyden P., Lu M., Jackson C., et al. Underlying structure of the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale: results of a factor analysis. NINDS tPA Stroke Trial Investigators. Stroke 30 (1999) 2347-2354
13. Warlow C., Dennis M., Van Gijn J., et al. Stroke: a practical guide to management (2001), Blackwell Science, Oxford (UK)
14. Ostir G.V., Goodwin J.S., Markides K.S., et al. Differential effects of premorbid physical and emotional health on recovery from acute events. J Am Geriatr Soc 50 (2002) 713-718
15. Wyller T.B., Sodring K.M., Sveen U., et al. Are there gender differences in functional outcome after stroke?. Clin Rehabil 11 (1997) 171-179
16. Wolfe C.D. The impact of stroke. Br Med Bull 56 (2000) 275-286
17. Murray C.J.L., and Lopez A.D. The global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020 (2005), Harvard University Press, Boston
18. Mant J., Wade D., and Winner S. Health care needs assessment: stroke. In: Health care needs assessment: the epidemiologically based needs assessment reviews (2004), Radcliffe Medical Press, Oxford (UK)
19. Anderson C.S., Linto J., and Stewart-Wynne E.G. A population-based assessment of the impact and burden of caregiving for long-term stroke survivors. Stroke 26 (1995) 843-849
20. Smout S., Koudstaal P.J., Ribbers G.M., et al. Struck by stroke: a pilot study exploring quality of life and coping patterns in younger patients and spouses. Int J Rehabil Res 24 (2001) 261-268
21. Burman M.E. Family caregiver expectations and management of the stroke trajectory. Rehabil Nurs 26 (2001) 94-99
22. Frey J.L. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) for stroke. The perspective at 8 years. Neurologist 11 (2005) 123-133
23. Chen Z.M., Sandercock P., Pan H.C., et al. Indications for early aspirin use in acute ischemic stroke: a combined analysis of 40 000 randomized patients from the Chinese Acute Stroke Trial and the International Stroke Trial. On behalf of the CAST and IST collaborative groups. Stroke 31 (2000) 1240-1249
24. Ruland S.D. Lifestyle modification, antihypertensives, and cholesterol-lowering medication for primary and secondary stroke prevention. Continuum 19 (2005) 47-60
25. Sterzer P., Meintzschel F., Rosler A., et al. Pravastatin improves cerebral vasomotor reactivity in patients with subcortical small-vessel disease. Stroke 32 (2001) 2817-2820
26. Tseng M.Y., Czosnyka M., Richards H., et al. Effects of acute treatment with pravastatin on cerebral vasospasm, autoregulation, and delayed ischemic deficits after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 36 (2005) 1627-1632
27. Berg A.H., and Scherer P.E. Adipose tissue, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res 96 (2005) 939-949
28. Schieffer B., Bunte C., Witte J., et al. Comparative effects of AT1-antagonism and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on markers of inflammation and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 44 (2004) 362-368
29. Di N.M., and Papa F. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use is associated with reduced plasma concentration of C-reactive protein in patients with first-ever ischemic stroke. Stroke 34 (2003) 2922-2929
30. Matyszak M.K. Inflammation in the CNS: balance between immunological privilege and immune responses. Prog Neurobiol 56 (1998) 19-35
31. Deli M.A., Abraham C.S., Kataoka Y., et al. Permeability studies on in vitro blood-brain barrier models: physiology, pathology, and pharmacology. Cell Mol Neurobiol 25 (2005) 59-127
32. Hickey W.F. Basic principles of immunological surveillance of the normal central nervous system. Glia 36 (2001) 118-124
33. Dirnagl U., Iadecola C., and Moskowitz M.A. Pathobiology of ischaemic stroke: an integrated view. Trends Neurosci 22 (1999) 391-397
34. del Zoppo G.J., and Mabuchi T. Cerebral microvessel responses to focal ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23 (2003) 879-894
35. Lynch N.J., Willis C.L., Nolan C.C., et al. Microglial activation and increased synthesis of complement component C1q precedes blood-brain barrier dysfunction in rats. Mol Immunol 40 (2004) 709-716
36. Rothwell N.J., and Hopkins S.J. Cytokines and the nervous system II: actions and mechanisms of action. Trends Neurosci 18 (1995) 130-136
37. Kochanek P.M., and Hallenbeck J.M. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocytes/macrophages in the pathogenesis of cerebral ischemia and stroke. Stroke 23 (1992) 1367-1379
38. Yamasaki Y., Matsuo Y., Matsuura N., et al. Transient increase of cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant, a member of the interleukin-8 family, in ischemic brain areas after focal ischemia in rats. Stroke 26 (1995) 318-322
39. Haring H.P., Berg E.L., Tsurushita N., et al. E-selectin appears in nonischemic tissue during experimental focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke 27 (1996) 1386-1391
40. Love S., and Barber R. Expression of P-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in human brain after focal infarction or cardiac arrest. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 27 (2001) 465-473
41. Schoning B., Elepfandt P., Daberkow N., et al. Differences in immune cell invasion into the cerebrospinal fluid and brain parenchyma during cerebral infusion of interleukin-1beta. Neurol Sci 23 (2002) 211-218
42. Kim J.S., Chopp M., Chen H., et al. Adhesive glycoproteins CD11a and CD18 are upregulated in the leukocytes from patients with ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attacks. J Neurol Sci 128 (1995) 45-50
43. del Zoppo G.J., Schmid-Schonbein G.W., Mori E., et al. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes occlude capillaries following middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion in baboons. Stroke 22 (1991) 1276-1283
44. Schmid-Schonbein G.W. Capillary plugging by granulocytes and the no-reflow phenomenon in the microcirculation. Fed Proc 46 (1987) 2397-2401
45. Maier C.M., Hsieh L., Yu F., et al. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 and myeloperoxidase expression: quantitative analysis by antigen immunohistochemistry in a model of transient focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke 35 (2004) 1169-1174
46. Lipton P. Ischemic cell death in brain neurons. Physiol Rev 79 (1999) 1431-1568
47. Inglis V.I., Jones M.P., Tse A.D., et al. Neutrophils both reduce and increase permeability in a cell culture model of the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res 998 (2004) 218-229
48. Heo J.H., Han S.W., and Lee S.K. Free radicals as triggers of brain edema formation after stroke. Free Radic Biol Med 39 (2005) 51-70
49. Crack P.J., and Taylor J.M. Reactive oxygen species and the modulation of stroke. Free Radic Biol Med 38 (2005) 1433-1444
50. Taylor B.S., de Vera M.E., Ganster R.W., et al. Multiple NF-kappaB enhancer elements regulate cytokine induction of the human inducible nitric oxide synthase gene. J Biol Chem 273 (1998) 15148-15156
51. Bonventre J.V. Roles of phospholipase A2 in brain cell and tissue injury associated with ischemia and excitotoxicity. J Lipid Mediat Cell Signal 16 (1997) 199-208
52. Pepicelli O., Fedele E., Bonanno G., et al. In vivo activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the rat hippocampus increases prostaglandin E(2) extracellular levels and triggers lipid peroxidation through cyclooxygenase-mediated mechanisms. J Neurochem 81 (2002) 1028-1034
53. Iadecola C., Sugimoto K., Niwa K., et al. Increased susceptibility to ischemic brain injury in cyclooxygenase-1-deficient mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 21 (2001) 1436-1441
54. Manabe Y., Anrather J., Kawano T., et al. Prostanoids, not reactive oxygen species, mediate COX-2-dependent neurotoxicity. Ann Neurol 55 (2004) 668-675
55. Ahmad A., Saleem S., Ahmad M., et al. Prostaglandin EP1 receptor contributes to excitotoxicity and focal ischemic brain damage. Toxicol Sci 89 1 (2006) 265-270
56. McCullough L., Wu L., Haughey N., et al. Neuroprotective function of the PGE2 EP2 receptor in cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci 24 (2004) 257-268
57. Anthony D.C., Bolton S.J., Fearn S., et al. Age-related effects of interleukin-1 beta on polymorphonuclear neutrophil-dependent increases in blood-brain barrier permeability in rats. Brain 120 Pt 3 (1997) 435-444
58. Allan S.M., and Rothwell N.J. Inflammation in central nervous system injury. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358 (2003) 1669-1677
59. Lazovic J., Basu A., Lin H.W., et al. Neuroinflammation and both cytotoxic and vasogenic edema are reduced in interleukin-1 type 1 receptor-deficient mice conferring neuroprotection. Stroke 36 (2005) 2226-2231
60. Krupinski J., Kumar P., Kumar S., et al. Increased expression of TGF-beta 1 in brain tissue after ischemic stroke in humans. Stroke 27 (1996) 852-857
61. Campbell S.J., Hughes P.M., Iredale J.P., et al. CINC-1 is an acute-phase protein induced by focal brain injury causing leukocyte mobilization and liver injury. FASEB J 17 (2003) 1168-1170
62. Smith C.J., Emsley H.C., Gavin C.M., et al. Peak plasma interleukin-6 and other peripheral markers of inflammation in the first week of ischaemic stroke correlate with brain infarct volume, stroke severity and long-term outcome. BMC Neurol 4 (2004) 2
63. Pedersen E.D., Waje-Andreassen U., Vedeler C.A., et al. Systemic complement activation following human acute ischaemic stroke. Clin Exp Immunol 137 (2004) 117-122
64. Van Beek J. Complement activation: beneficial and detrimental effects in the CNS. Ernst Schering Res Found Workshop 47 (2004) 67-85
65. Emsley H.C., Smith C.J., Gavin C.M., et al. An early and sustained peripheral inflammatory response in acute ischaemic stroke: relationships with infection and atherosclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 139 (2003) 93-101
66. Veerhuis R., Janssen I., De Groot C.J., et al. Cytokines associated with amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease brain stimulate human glial and neuronal cell cultures to secrete early complement proteins, but not C1-inhibitor. Exp Neurol 160 (1999) 289-299
67. Lindsberg P.J., Ohman J., Lehto T., et al. Complement activation in the central nervous system following blood-brain barrier damage in man. Ann Neurol 40 (1996) 587-596
68. Singhrao S.K., Neal J.W., Rushmere N.K., et al. Spontaneous classical pathway activation and deficiency of membrane regulators render human neurons susceptible to complement lysis. Am J Pathol 157 (2000) 905-918
69. Ten V.S., Sosunov S.A., Mazer S.P., et al. C1q-deficiency is neuroprotective against hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in neonatal mice. Stroke 36 (2005) 2244-2250
70. Storini C., Rossi E., Marrella V., et al. C1-inhibitor protects against brain ischemia-reperfusion injury via inhibition of cell recruitment and inflammation. Neurobiol Dis 19 (2005) 10-17
71. Cunningham L.A., Wetzel M., and Rosenberg G.A. Multiple roles for MMPs and TIMPs in cerebral ischemia. Glia 50 (2005) 329-339
72. Gidday J.M., Gasche Y.G., Copin J.C., et al. Leukocyte-derived matrix metalloproteinase-9 mediates blood-brain barrier breakdown and is proinflammatory after transient focal cerebral ischemia. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 289 (2005) H558-H568
73. Castellanos M., Leira R., Serena J., et al. Plasma metalloproteinase-9 concentration predicts hemorrhagic transformation in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 34 (2003) 40-46
74. Rosell A., varez-Sabin J., Arenillas J.F., et al. A matrix metalloproteinase protein array reveals a strong relation between MMP-9 and MMP-13 with diffusion-weighted image lesion increase in human stroke. Stroke 36 (2005) 1415-1420
75. Gu Z., Kaul M., Yan B., et al. S-nitrosylation of matrix metalloproteinases: signaling pathway to neuronal cell death. Science 297 (2002) 1186-1190
76. Kauppinen T.M., and Swanson R.A. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 promotes microglial activation, proliferation, and matrix metalloproteinase-9-mediated neuron death. J Immunol 174 (2005) 2288-2296
77. Vecil G.G., Larsen P.H., Corley S.M., et al. Interleukin-1 is a key regulator of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in human neurons in culture and following mouse brain trauma in vivo. J Neurosci Res 61 (2000) 212-224
78. Hillhouse E.W., Kida S., and Iannotti F. Middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat causes a biphasic production of immunoreactive interleukin-1beta in the cerebral cortex. Neurosci Lett 249 (1998) 177-179
79. Buttini M., Sauter A., and Boddeke H.W. Induction of interleukin-1 beta mRNA after focal cerebral ischaemia in the rat. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 23 (1994) 126-134
80. Sairanen T.R., Lindsberg P.J., Brenner M., et al. Global forebrain ischemia results in differential cellular expression of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and its receptor at mRNA and protein level. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17 (1997) 1107-1120
81. Pinteaux E., Parker L.C., Rothwell N.J., et al. Expression of interleukin-1 receptors and their role in interleukin-1 actions in murine microglial cells. J Neurochem 83 (2002) 754-763
82. Yamasaki Y., Matsuura N., Shozuhara H., et al. Interleukin-1 as a pathogenetic mediator of ischemic brain damage in rats. Stroke 26 (1995) 676-680
83. Loddick S.A., and Rothwell N.J. Neuroprotective effects of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in focal cerebral ischaemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16 (1996) 932-940
84. Stroemer R.P., and Rothwell N.J. Exacerbation of ischemic brain damage by localized striatal injection of interleukin-1beta in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18 (1998) 833-839
85. Boutin H., LeFeuvre R.A., Horai R., et al. Role of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in ischemic brain damage. J Neurosci 21 (2001) 5528-5534
86. Thornberry N.A., Bull H.G., Calaycay J.R., et al. A novel heterodimeric cysteine protease is required for interleukin-1 beta processing in monocytes. Nature 356 (1992) 768-774
87. Huang F.P., Wang Z.Q., Wu D.C., et al. Early NFkappaB activation is inhibited during focal cerebral ischemia in interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme deficient mice. J Neurosci Res 73 (2003) 698-707
88. Relton J.K., and Rothwell N.J. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits ischaemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in the rat. Brain Res Bull 29 (1992) 243-246
89. Stroemer R.P., and Rothwell N.J. Cortical protection by localized striatal injection of IL-1ra following cerebral ischemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17 (1997) 597-604
90. Garcia J.H., Liu K.F., and Relton J.K. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist decreases the number of necrotic neurons in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion. Am J Pathol 147 (1995) 1477-1486
91. Lin M.T., Kao T.Y., Jin Y.T., et al. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist attenuates the heat stroke-induced neuronal damage by reducing the cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res Bull 37 (1995) 595-598
92. Relton J.K., Martin D., Thompson R.C., et al. Peripheral administration of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits brain damage after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. Exp Neurol 138 (1996) 206-213
93. Loddick S.A., Wong M.L., Bongiorno P.B., et al. Endogenous interleukin-1 receptor antagonist is neuroprotective. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 234 (1997) 211-215
94. Emsley H.C., Smith C.J., Georgiou R.F., et al. A randomised phase II study of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in acute stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76 (2005) 1366-1372
95. Vila N., Filella X., Deulofeu R., et al. Cytokine-induced inflammation and long-term stroke functional outcome. J Neurol Sci 162 (1999) 185-188
96. Zaremba J., Skrobanski P., and Losy J. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha is increased in the cerebrospinal fluid and serum of ischaemic stroke patients and correlates with the volume of evolving brain infarct. Biomed Pharmacother 55 (2001) 258-263
97. Barone F.C., Arvin B., White R.F., et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha. A mediator of focal ischemic brain injury. Stroke 28 (1997) 1233-1244
98. Dawson D.A., Martin D., and Hallenbeck J.M. Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha reduces focal cerebral ischemic injury in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Neurosci Lett 218 (1996) 41-44
99. Hosomi N., Ban C.R., Naya T., et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha neutralization reduced cerebral edema through inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase production after transient focal cerebral ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 25 (2005) 959-967
100. Bruce A.J., Boling W., Kindy M.S., et al. Altered neuronal and microglial responses to excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury in mice lacking TNF receptors. Nat Med 2 (1996) 788-794
101. Scherbel U., Raghupathi R., Nakamura M., et al. Differential acute and chronic responses of tumor necrosis factor-deficient mice to experimental brain injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96 (1999) 8721-8726
102. Tarkowski E., Rosengren L., Blomstrand C., et al. Early intrathecal production of interleukin-6 predicts the size of brain lesion in stroke. Stroke 26 (1995) 1393-1398
103. Loddick S.A., Turnbull A.V., and Rothwell N.J. Cerebral interleukin-6 is neuroprotective during permanent focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18 (1998) 176-179
104. Tilg H., Trehu E., Atkins M.B., et al. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) as an anti-inflammatory cytokine: induction of circulating IL-1 receptor antagonist and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor p55. Blood 83 (1994) 113-118
105. Campbell I.L., Abraham C.R., Masliah E., et al. Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90 (1993) 10061-10065
106. Clark W.M., Rinker L.G., Lessov N.S., et al. Lack of interleukin-6 expression is not protective against focal central nervous system ischemia. Stroke 31 (2000) 1715-1720
107. Pelidou S.H., Kostulas N., Matusevicius D., et al. High levels of IL-10 secreting cells are present in blood in cerebrovascular diseases. Eur J Neurol 6 (1999) 437-442
108. Van Exel E., Gussekloo J., de Craen A.J., et al. Inflammation and stroke: the Leiden 85-Plus Study. Stroke 33 (2002) 1135-1138
109. Spera P.A., Ellison J.A., Feuerstein G.Z., et al. IL-10 reduces rat brain injury following focal stroke. Neurosci Lett 251 (1998) 189-192
110. Henrich-Noack P., Prehn J.H., and Krieglstein J. TGF-beta 1 protects hippocampal neurons against degeneration caused by transient global ischemia. Dose-response relationship and potential neuroprotective mechanisms. Stroke 27 (1996) 1609-1614
111. Prehn J.H., Backhauss C., and Krieglstein J. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 prevents glutamate neurotoxicity in rat neocortical cultures and protects mouse neocortex from ischemic injury in vivo. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13 (1993) 521-525
112. Ruocco A., Nicole O., Docagne F., et al. A transforming growth factor-beta antagonist unmasks the neuroprotective role of this endogenous cytokine in excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19 (1999) 1345-1353
113. Chopp M., Li Y., Jiang N., et al. Antibodies against adhesion molecules reduce apoptosis after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rat brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16 (1996) 578-584
114. Jiang N., Moyle M., Soule H.R., et al. Neutrophil inhibitory factor is neuroprotective after focal ischemia in rats. Ann Neurol 38 (1995) 935-942
115. Soriano S.G., Lipton S.A., Wang Y.F., et al. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1-deficient mice are less susceptible to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Ann Neurol 39 (1996) 618-624
116. Connolly Jr. E.S., Winfree C.J., Prestigiacomo C.J., et al. Exacerbation of cerebral injury in mice that express the P-selectin gene: identification of P-selectin blockade as a new target for the treatment of stroke. Circ Res 81 (1997) 304-310
117. Smith C.W., Rothlein R., Hughes B.J., et al. Recognition of an endothelial determinant for CD 18-dependent human neutrophil adherence and transendothelial migration. J Clin Invest 82 (1988) 1746-1756
118. Clark W.M., Madden K.P., Rothlein R., et al. Reduction of central nervous system ischemic injury by monoclonal antibody to intercellular adhesion molecule. J Neurosurg 75 (1991) 623-627
119. Bowes M.P., Rothlein R., Fagan S.C., et al. Monoclonal antibodies preventing leukocyte activation reduce experimental neurologic injury and enhance efficacy of thrombolytic therapy. Neurology 45 (1995) 815-819
120. Schneider D., Berrouschot J., Brandt T., et al. Safety, pharmacokinetics and biological activity of enlimomab (anti-ICAM-1 antibody): an open-label, dose escalation study in patients hospitalized for acute stroke. Eur Neurol 40 (1998) 78-83
121. Enlimomab Acute Stroke Trial Investigators. Use of anti-ICAM-1 therapy in ischemic stroke: results of the Enlimomab Acute Stroke Trial. Neurology 57 (2001) 1428-1434
122. Rost N.S., Wolf P.A., Kase C.S., et al. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack: the Framingham study. Stroke 32 (2001) 2575-2579
123. Ridker P.M., Cushman M., Stampfer M.J., et al. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 336 (1997) 973-979
124. Muir K.W., Weir C.J., Alwan W., et al. C-reactive protein and outcome after ischemic stroke. Stroke 30 (1999) 981-985
125. Azzimondi G., Bassein L., Nonino F., et al. Fever in acute stroke worsens prognosis. A prospective study. Stroke 26 (1995) 2040-2043
126. Hashimoto M., Ishikawa Y., Yokota S., et al. Action site of circulating interleukin-1 on the rabbit brain. Brain Res 540 (1991) 217-223
127. Banks W.A., Ortiz L., Plotkin S.R., et al. Human interleukin (IL) 1 alpha, murine IL-1 alpha and murine IL-1 beta are transported from blood to brain in the mouse by a shared saturable mechanism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 259 (1991) 988-996
128. Banks W.A., and Kastin A.J. Blood to brain transport of interleukin links the immune and central nervous systems. Life Sci 48 (1991) L117-L121
129. Van Dam A.M., de Vries H.E., Kuiper J., et al. Interleukin-1 receptors on rat brain endothelial cells: a role in neuroimmune interaction?. FASEB J 10 (1996) 351-356
130. Blatteis C.M. Role of the OVLT in the febrile response to circulating pyrogens. Prog Brain Res 91 (1992) 409-412
131. Goehler L.E., Relton J.K., Dripps D., et al. Vagal paraganglia bind biotinylated interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: a possible mechanism for immune-to-brain communication. Brain Res Bull 43 (1997) 357-364
132. Goehler L.E., Gaykema R.P., Hammack S.E., et al. Interleukin-1 induces c-Fos immunoreactivity in primary afferent neurons of the vagus nerve. Brain Res 804 (1998) 306-310
133. Bruunsgaard H., Skinhoj P., Pedersen A.N., et al. Ageing, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and atherosclerosis. Clin Exp Immunol 121 (2000) 255-260
134. Mendall M.A., Patel P., Ballam L., et al. C reactive protein and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: a population based cross sectional study. BMJ 312 (1996) 1061-1065
135. Blann A.D., Tse W., Maxwell S.J., et al. Increased levels of the soluble adhesion molecule E-selectin in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 12 (1994) 925-928
136. DeSouza C.A., Dengel D.R., Macko R.F., et al. Elevated levels of circulating cell adhesion molecules in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 10 (1997) 1335-1341
137. Osborn L. Leukocyte adhesion to endothelium in inflammation. Cell 62 (1990) 3-6
138. Springer T.A. Adhesion receptors of the immune system. Nature 346 (1990) 425-434
139. Morin A.M., and Stanboli A. Nitric oxide synthase localization in cultured cerebrovascular endothelium during mitosis. Exp Cell Res 211 (1994) 183-188
140. Kostulas N., Pelidou S.H., Kivisakk P., et al. Increased IL-1beta, IL-8, and IL-17 mRNA expression in blood mononuclear cells observed in a prospective ischemic stroke study. Stroke 30 (1999) 2174-2179
141. Chrousos G.P. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 332 (1995) 1351-1362
142. Glezer I., and Rivest S. Glucocorticoids: protectors of the brain during innate immune responses. Neuroscientist 10 (2004) 538-552
143. Felszeghy K., Banisadr G., Rostene W., et al. Dexamethasone downregulates chemokine receptor CXCR4 and exerts neuroprotection against hypoxia/ischemia-induced brain injury in neonatal rats. Neuroimmunomodulation 11 (2004) 404-413
144. Sugo N., Hurn P.D., Morahan M.B., et al. Social stress exacerbates focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Stroke 33 (2002) 1660-1664
145. Smith-Swintosky V.L., Pettigrew L.C., Sapolsky R.M., et al. Metyrapone, an inhibitor of glucocorticoid production, reduces brain injury induced by focal and global ischemia and seizures. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16 (1996) 585-598
146. Meisel C., Schwab J.M., Prass K., et al. Central nervous system injury induced immune deficiency syndrome. Nat Rev Neurosci 6 10 (2005) 775-786
147. Offner H., Subramanian S., Parker S.M., et al. Experimental stroke induces massive, rapid activation of the peripheral immune system. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 8 (2005)
148. Ott L., McClain C.J., Gillespie M., et al. Cytokines and metabolic dysfunction after severe head injury. J Neurotrauma 11 (1994) 447-472
149. Bogousslavsky J. William Feinberg lecture 2002: emotions, mood, and behavior after stroke. Stroke 34 (2003) 1046-1050
150. Chaudhuri A., and Behan P.O. Fatigue in neurological disorders. Lancet 363 (2004) 978-988
151. Eskesen V., Sorensen E.B., Rosenorn J., et al. The prognosis in subarachnoid hemorrhage of unknown etiology. J Neurosurg 61 (1984) 1029-1031
152. Powell J., Kitchen N., Heslin J., et al. Psychosocial outcomes at 18 months after good neurological recovery from aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75 (2004) 1119-1124
153. Clark M.S., and Smith D.S. Psychological correlates of outcome following rehabilitation from stroke. Clin Rehabil 13 (1999) 129-140
154. Maier S.F., and Watkins L.R. Cytokines for psychologists: implications of bidirectional immune-to-brain communication for understanding behavior, mood, and cognition. Psychol Rev 105 (1998) 83-107
155. Maier S.F. Bi-directional immune-brain communication: implications for understanding stress, pain, and cognition. Brain Behav Immun 17 (2003) 69-85
156. Baumann H., and Gauldie J. The acute phase response. Immunol Today 15 (1994) 74-80
157. Dantzer R. Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: mechanisms and implications. Ann N Y Acad Sci 933 (2001) 222-234
158. Kent S., Bluthe R.M., Kelley K.W., et al. Sickness behavior as a new target for drug development. Trends Pharmacol Sci 13 (1992) 24-28
159. Capuron L., and Dantzer R. Cytokines and depression: the need for a new paradigm. Brain Behav Immun 17 Suppl 1 (2003) S119-S124
160. Larson S.J., and Dunn A.J. Behavioral effects of cytokines. Brain Behav Immun 15 (2001) 371-387
161. Reichenberg A., Yirmiya R., Schuld A., et al. Cytokine-associated emotional and cognitive disturbances in humans. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 (2001) 445-452
162. Hermann D.M., Mullington J., Hinze-Selch D., et al. Endotoxin-induced changes in sleep and sleepiness during the day. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23 (1998) 427-437
163. Seilhean D., Kobayashi K., He Y., et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, microglia and astrocytes in AIDS dementia complex. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 93 (1997) 508-517
164. Bauer J., Hohagen F., Gimmel E., et al. Induction of cytokine synthesis and fever suppresses REM sleep and improves mood in patients with major depression. Biol Psychiatry 38 (1995) 611-621
165. Capuron L., Ravaud A., Miller A.H., et al. Baseline mood and psychosocial characteristics of patients developing depressive symptoms during interleukin-2 and/or interferon-alpha cancer therapy. Brain Behav Immun 18 (2004) 205-213
166. Krabbe K.S., Reichenberg A., Yirmiya R., et al. Low-dose endotoxemia and human neuropsychological functions. Brain Behav Immun 19 (2005) 453-460
167. Neurological effects of recombinant human interferon. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 286 (1983) 1054-1055
168. Pavol M.A., Meyers C.A., Rexer J.L., et al. Pattern of neurobehavioral deficits associated with interferon alfa therapy for leukemia. Neurology 45 (1995) 947-950
169. Adams F., Quesada J.R., and Gutterman J.U. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of human leukocyte interferon therapy in patients with cancer. JAMA 252 (1984) 938-941
170. Wichers M., and Maes M. The psychoneuroimmuno-pathophysiology of cytokine-induced depression in humans. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 5 (2002) 375-388
171. Anderson R. The aftermath of stroke: the experience of patients and their families. 1992.
172. De Groot M.H., Phillips S.J., and Eskes G.A. Fatigue associated with stroke and other neurologic conditions: implications for stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 84 (2003) 1714-1720
173. Carlsson G.E., Moller A., and Blomstrand C. Consequences of mild stroke in persons < 75 years-a 1-year follow-up. Cerebrovasc Dis 16 (2003) 383-388
174. Roding J., Lindstrom B., Malm J., et al. Frustrated and invisible-younger stroke patients' experiences of the rehabilitation process. Disabil Rehabil 25 (2003) 867-874
175. Morley W., Jackson K., and Mead G.E. Post-stroke fatigue: an important yet neglected symptom. Age Ageing 34 (2005) 313
176. Carlsson G.E., Moller A., and Blomstrand C. A qualitative study of the consequences of hidden dysfunctions' one year after a mild strokein persons < 75 years. Disabil Rehabil 26 (2004) 1373-1380
177. Glader E.L., Stegmayr B., and Asplund K. Poststroke fatigue: a 2-year follow-up study of stroke patients in Sweden. Stroke 33 (2002) 1327-1333
178. Staub F., and Bogousslavsky J. Fatigue after stroke: a major but neglected issue. Cerebrovasc Dis 12 (2001) 75-81
179. Choi-Kwon S., Kim H.S., Kwon S.U., et al. Factors affecting the burden on caregivers of stroke survivors in South Korea. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86 (2005) 1043-1048
180. Ingles J.L., Eskes G.A., and Phillips S.J. Fatigue after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 80 (1999) 173-178
181. Schuitemaker G.E., Dinant G.J., Van Der Pol G.A., et al. Vital exhaustion as a risk indicator for first stroke. Psychosomatics 45 (2004) 114-118
182. Pedersen B.K., and Febbraio M. Muscle-derived interleukin-6-a possible link between skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, liver, and brain. Brain Behav Immun 19 (2005) 371-376
183. De Coster L., Leentjens A.F., Lodder J., et al. The sensitivity of somatic symptoms in post-stroke depression: a discriminant analytic approach. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 20 (2005) 358-362
184. Turner-Stokes L., and Hassan N. Depression after stroke: a review of the evidence base to inform the development of an integrated care pathway. Part 2: treatment alternatives. Clin Rehabil 16 (2002) 248-260
185. House A., Knapp P., Bamford J., et al. Mortality at 12 and 24 months after stroke may be associated with depressive symptoms at 1 month. Stroke 32 (2001) 696-701
186. Robinson R.G. Poststroke depression: prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and disease progression. Biol Psychiatry 54 (2003) 376-387
187. Bassetti C.L. Sleep and stroke. Semin Neurol 25 (2005) 19-32
188. Cleeland C.S., Bennett G.J., Dantzer R., et al. Are the symptoms of cancer and cancer treatment due to a shared biologic mechanism? A cytokine-immunologic model of cancer symptoms. Cancer 97 (2003) 2919-2925
189. Arvin B., Neville L.F., Barone F.C., et al. The role of inflammation and cytokines in brain injury. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20 (1996) 445-452
190. Emsley H.C., and Tyrrell P.J. Inflammation and infection in clinical stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 22 (2002) 1399-1419