The psychoneuroimmuno-pathophysiology of cytokine-induced depression in humans

International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 375-388

  Wichers, Marieke ^a   Maes, Michael ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Cytokines; Depression; HPA axis; Noradrenaline; Serotonin

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; CYTOKINE; INDOLEAMINE 2,3 DIOXYGENASE; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 6; NEUROTRANSMITTER; NORADRENALIN; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN RECEPTOR; TRYPTOPHAN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANOREXIA; AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CANCER THERAPY; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CROSS ALLERGY; DEPRESSION; DOSE TIME EFFECT RELATION; DRUG SENSITIZATION; FATIGUE; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; ILLNESS BEHAVIOR; IMMUNOTHERAPY; IRRITABILITY; MENTAL DISEASE; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NORADRENERGIC SYSTEM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SEROTONIN METABOLISM; SOMNOLENCE;

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER; CYTOKINES; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; INTERFERON-ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN-2; MENTAL DISORDERS; NOREPINEPHRINE; SEROTONIN;

EID: 0036905778     PISSN: 14611457     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1461145702003103     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Abe S, Hori T, Suzuki T, Baba A, Shiraishi H, Yamamoto T (1999). Effects of chronic administration of interferon alpha A/D on serotonergic receptors in rat brain. Neurochemical Research 24, 359-363.
2. Adams F, Quesada JR, Gutterman JU (1984). Neuropsychiatric manifestations of human leukocyte interferon therapy in patients with cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association 252, 938-941.
3. Ando T, Dunn AJ (1999). Mouse tumor necrosis factor-alpha increases brain tryptophan concentrations and norepinephrine metabolism while activating the HPA axis in mice. Neuroimmunomodulation 6, 319-329.
4. Anonymous (1976). Interferon therapy in chronic hepatitis B. Lancet 2, 1122-1123.
5. Antelman SM, Eichler AJ, Black CA, Kocan D (1980). Interchangeability of stress and amphetamine in sensitization. Science 207, 329-331.
6. Antelman SM, Levine J, Gershon S (2000). Time-dependent sensitization: The odyssey of a scientific heresy from the laboratory to the door of the clinic. Molecular Psychiatry 5, 350-356.
7. Arborelius L, Owens MJ, Plotsky PM, Nemeroff CB (1999). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Endocrinology 160, 1-12.
8. Begley DJ (1992). Peptides and the blood-brain barrier. In: Bradbury MWB (Ed.), Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology: Physiology and Pharmacology of the Blood-Brain Barrier (pp. 151-203). Berlin: Springer.
9. Besedovsky H, del Rey A, Sorkin E, Dinarello CA (1986). Immunoregulatory feedback between interleukin-1 and glucocorticoid hormones. Science 233, 652-654.
10. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A, Klusman I, Furukawa H, Monge Arditi G, Kabiersch A (1991). Cytokines as modulators of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 40, 613-618.
11. Bianchi M, Sacerdote P, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Mantegazza P, Panerai AE (1992). Central effects of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 alpha on nociceptive thresholds and spontaneous locomotor activity. Neuroscience Letters 148, 76-80.
12. Blatteis CM (1990). Neuromodulative actions of cytokines. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63, 133-146.
13. Bluthe RM, Michaud B, Poli V, Dantzer R (2000). Role of IL-6 in cytokine-induced sickness behavior: A study with IL-6 deficient mice. Physiology and Behavior 70, 367-373.
14. Bluthe RM, Pawlowski M, Suarez S, Parnet P, Pittman Q, Kelley KW, Dantzer R (1994). Synergy between tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 in the induction of sickness behavior in mice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 19, 197-207.
15. Bonaccorso S, Marino V, Puzella A, Pasquini M, Biondi M, Artini M, Almerighi C, Verkerk R, Meltzer H, Maes M (2002). Increased depressive ratings in patients with hepatitis C receiving interferon-alpha-based immunotherapy are related to interferon-alpha-induced changes in the serotonergic system. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 22, 86-90.
16. Bonaccorso S, Meltzer H, Maes M (2000). Psychological and behavioural effects of interferon-alpha. Current Opinion 13, 673-677.
17. Borgstrom S, von Eyben FE, Flodgren P, Axelsson B, Sjogren HO (1982). Human leukocyte interferon and cimetidine for metastatic melanoma. New England Journal of Medicine 307, 1080-1081.
18. Brebner K, Hayley S, Zacharko R, Merali Z, Anisman H (2000). Synergistic effects of interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha: Central monoamine, corticosterone, and behavioral variations. Neuropsychopharmacology 22, 566-580.
19. Brown KA (2001). Factors modifying the migration of lymphocytes across the blood-brain barrier. International Immunopharmacology 1, 2043-2062.
20. Bunney Jr. WE, Davis JM (1965). Norepinephrine in depressive reactions. A review. Archives of General Psychiatry 13, 483-494.
21. Buter J, de Vries EG, Sleijfer DT, Willemse PH, Mulder NH (1993). Neuropsychiatric symptoms during treatment with interleukin-2. Lancet 341, 628.
22. Capuron L, Ravaud A, Dantzer R (2000). Early depressive symptoms in cancer patients receiving interleukin 2 and/or interferon alfa-2b therapy. Journal of Clinical Oncology 18, 2143-2151.
23. Caraceni A, Gangeri L, Martini C, Belli F, Brunelli C, Baldini M, Mascheroni L, Lenisa L, Cascinelli N (1998). Neurotoxicity of interferon-alpha in melanoma therapy, results from a randomized controlled trial. Cancer 83, 482-489.
24. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Mendels J (1976). Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. I. Limbic system - Adrenocortical dysfunction. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1039-1044.
25. Charlton BG (2000). The malaise theory of depression: Major depressive disorder is sickness behavior and antidepressants are analgesic. Medical Hypotheses 54, 126-130.
26. Chiodo LA, Antelman SM (1980a). Electroconvulsive shock: Progressive dopamine autoreceptor subsensitivity independent of repeated treatment. Science 210, 799-801.
27. Chiodo LA, Antelman SM (1980b). Repeated tricyclics induce a progressive dopamine autoreceptor subsensitivity independent of daily drug treatment. Nature 287, 451-454.
28. Clement HW, Buschmann J, Rex S, Grote C, Opper C, Gemsa D, Wesemann W (1997). Effects of interferongamma, interleukin-1 beta, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha on the serotonin metabolism in the nucleus raphe dorsalis of the rat. Journal of Neural Transmission 104, 981-991.
29. Collier J, Chapman R (2001). Combination therapy with interferon-alpha and ribavirin for hepatitis C: Practical treatment issues. BioDrugs 15, 225-238.
30. Corssmit EP, Heijligenberg R, Hack CE, Endert E, Sauerwein HP, Romijn JA (1997). Effects of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha): Administration on leucocytes in healthy humans. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 107, 359-363.
31. De Bellis MD, Gold PW, Geracioti TD, Listwak S, Kling MA (1993). Fluoxetine significantly reduces CSF CFH and AVP concentrations in patients with major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 150, 656-657.
32. Del Rey A, Besedovsky HO (1992). Metabolic and neuroendocrine effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 22 (Suppl. 1), 10-15.
33. Denicoff KD, Rubinow DR, Papa MZ, Simpson C, Seipp CA, Lotze MT, Chang AE, Rosenstein D, Rosenberg SA (1987). The neuropsychiatric effects of treatment with interleukin-2 and lymphokine-activated killer cells. Annals of Internal Medicine 107, 293-300.
34. Dieperink E, Willenbring M, Ho SB (2000). Neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with hepatitis C and interferon alpha: A review. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 867-876.
35. Dumoulin FL, Leifeld L, Sauerbruch T, Spengler U (1999). Autoimmunity induced by interferon-alpha therapy for chronic viral hepatitis. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy 53, 242-254.
36. Dunn AJ (1992a). Endotoxin-induced activation of cerebral catecholamine and serotonin metabolism: Comparison with interleukin-1. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 261, 964-969.
37. Dunn AJ (1992b). The role of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha in the neurochemical and neuroendocrine responses to endotoxin. Brain Research Bulletin 29, 807-812.
38. Dunn AJ (1988). Systemic interleukin-1 administration stimulates hypothalamic norepinephrine metabolism parallelling the increased plasma corticosterone. Life Science 43, 429-435.
39. Dunn AJ, Berridge CW (1990). Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasing factor administration: Is CRF a mediator of anxiety or stress responses? Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews 15, 71-100.
40. Dunn AJ, Swiergiel AH (1998). The role of cytokines in infection-related behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 840, 577-585.
41. Dunn AJ, Wang J, Ando T (1999). Effects of cytokines on cerebral neurotransmission. In: Dantzer R, Wollman EE, Yirmiya R (Eds.), Cytokines, Stress and Depression. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
42. Dursun SM, Blackburn JR, Kutcher SP (2001). An exploratory approach to the serotonergic hypothesis of depression: Bridging the synaptic gap. Medical Hypotheses 56, 235-243.
43. Dusheiko G (1997). Side effects of alpha interferon in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 26, 112S-121S.
44. Ek M, Kurosawa M, Lundeberg T, Ericsson A (1998). Activation of vagal afferents after intravenous injection of interleukin-1beta: Role of endogenous prostaglandins. Journal of Neuroscience 18, 9471-9479.
45. Elenkov IJ, Kovacs K, Duda E, Stark E, Vizi ES (1992). Presynaptic inhibitory effect of TNF-alpha on the release of noradrenaline in isolated median eminence. Journal of Neuroimmunology 41, 117-120.
46. Ermisch A, Brust P, Kretzschmar R, Ruhle HJ (1993). Peptides and blood-brain barrier transport. Physiology Review 73, 489-527.
47. Fenner MH, Hanninen EL, Kirchner HH, Poliwoda H, Atzpodien J (1993). Neuropsychiatric symptoms during treatment with interleukin-2 and interferon-alpha. Lancet 341, 372.
48. Fukunishi K, Tanaka H, Maruyama J, Takahashi H, Kitagishi H, Ueshima T, Maruyama K, Sakata I (1998). Burns in a suicide attempt related to psychiatric side effects of interferon. Burns 24, 581-583.
49. Garcia-Sevilla JA, Zis AP, Hollingsworth PJ, Greden JF, Smith CB (1981). Platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptors in major depressive disorder. Binding of tritiated clonidine before and after tricyclic antidepressant drug treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 1327-1333.
50. Gold PW, Goodwin FK, Chrousos GP (1988). Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression. Relation to the neurobiology of stress (1). New England Journal of Medicine 319, 348-353.
51. Gormley GJ, Lowy MT, Reder AT, Hospelhorn VD, Antel JP, Meltzer HY (1985). Glucocorticoid receptors in depression: Relationship to the dexamethasone suppression test. American Journal of Psychiatry 142, 1278-1284.
52. Heeringa M, Honkoop P, de Man RA, Feenstra J, Smits CM (1998). Major psychiatric side effects of interferon alpha-2b. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 142, 1618-1621.
53. Hensley ML, Peterson B, Silver RT, Larson RA, Schiffer CA, Szatrowski TP (2000). Risk factors for severe neuropsychiatric toxicity in patients receiving interferon alfa-2b and low-dose cytarabine for chronic myelogenous leukemia: Analysis of Cancer and Leukemia Group B 90. Journal of Clinical Oncology 18, 1301-1308.
54. Herberman RB (1997). Effect of alpha-interferons on immune function. Seminars in Oncology 24, S9-78-S9-80.
55. Hersch EM (1989). Phase I study of cancer therapy with recombinant interleukin-2 administered by intravenous bolus injection. Biotherapy 1, 215-226.
56. Heyes MP, Saito K, Crowley JS, Davis LE, Demitrack MA, Der M, Dilling LA, Elia J, Kruesi MJ, Lackner A, et al. (1992). Quinolinic acid and kynurenine pathway metabolism in inflammatory and non-inflammatory neurological disease. Brain 115, 1249-1273.
57. Ho SB, Nguyen H, Tetrick LL, Opitz GA, Basara ML, Dieperink E (2001). Influence of psychiatric diagnoses on interferon-alpha treatment for chronic hepatitis C in a veteran population. American Journal of Gastroenterology 96, 157-164.
58. Hunt CM, Dominitz JA, Bute BP, Waters B, Blasi U, Williams DM (1997). Effect of interferon-alpha treatment of chronic hepatitis C on health-related quality of life. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 42, 2482-2486.
59. Hurst SM, Collins SM (1994). Mechanism underlying tumor necrosis factor-alpha suppression of norepinephrine release from rat myenteric plexus. American Journal of Physiology 266, G1123-9.
60. Janssen HL, Brouwer JT, van der Mast RC, Schalm SW (1994). Suicide associated with alfa-interferon therapy for chronic viral hepatitis. Journal of Hepatology 21, 241-243.
61. Juengling FD, Ebert D, Gut O, Engelbrecht MA, Rasenack J, Nitzsche EU, Bauer J, Lieb K (2000). Prefrontal cortical hypometabolism during low-dose interferon alpha treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 152, 383-389.
62. Kabiersch A, del Rey A, Honegger CG, Besedovsky HO (1988). Interleukin-1 induces changes in norepinephrine metabolism in the rat brain. Brain, Behavior and Immunology 2, 267-274.
63. Kafka MS, Paul SM (1986). Platelet alpha 2-adrenergic receptors in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 91-95.
64. Kent S, Bluthe RM, Kelley KW, Dantzer R (1992). Sickness behavior as a new target for drug development. Trends in Pharmacological Science 13, 24-28.
65. Koob GF, Heinrichs SC, Pich EM, Menzaghi F, Baldwin H, Miczek K, Britton KT (1993). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in behavioural responses to stress. Ciba Foundation Symposium 172, 277-289.
66. Krigel RL, Padavic-Shaller KA, Rudolph AR, Konrad M, Bradley EC, Comis RL (1990). Renal cell carcinoma, treatment with recombinant interleukin-2 plus beta-interferon. Journal of Clinical Oncology 8, 460-467.
67. Krueger JM, Takahashi S, Kapas L, Bredow S, Roky R, Fang J, Floyd R, Renegar KB, Guha-Thakurta N, Novitsky S, et al. (1995). Cytokines in sleep regulation. Advances in Neuroimmunology 5, 171-188.
68. Kugaya A, Kagaya A, Uchitomi Y, Yokota N, Yamawaki S (1996). Effect of interferon-alpha on DOI-induced wet-dog shakes in rats. Journal of Neural Transmission 103, 947-955.
69. Lacosta S, Merali Z, Anisman H (1998). Influence of interleukin-1beta on exploratory behaviors, plasma ACTH, corticosterone, and central biogenic amines in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 137, 351-161.
70. Lane HC (1991). The role of alpha-interferon in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Seminars in Oncology 18, 46-52.
71. Lesch KP, Bengel D, Heils A, Sabol SZ, Greenberg BD, Petri S, Benjamin J, Muller CR, Hamer DH, Murphy DL (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science 274, 1527-1531.
72. Lesch KP, Mossner R (1998). Genetically driven variation in serotonin uptake: Is there a link to affective spectrum, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative disorders? Biological Psychiatry 44, 179-192.
73. Lowy MT, Reder AT, Gormley GJ, Meltzer HY (1988). Comparison of in vivo and in vitro glucocorticoid sensitivity in depression: Relationship to the dexamethasone suppression test. Biological Psychiatry 24, 619-630.
74. Maes M (1993). A review on the acute phase response in major depression. Reviews in the Neurosciences 4, 407-416.
75. Maes M, Bonaccorso S, Marino V, Puzella A, Pasquini M, Biondi M, Artini M, Almerighi C, Meltzer H (2001). Treatment with interferon-alpha (IFN alpha) of hepatitis C patients induces lower serum dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity, which is related to IFN alpha-induced depressive and anxiety symptoms and immune activation. Molecular Psychiatry 6, 475-480.
76. Maes M, Meltzer H (1995). The serotonin hypothesis of major depression. In: Bloom F, Kupfer D (Eds.), Psychopharmacology (pp. 933-944). New York: Raven Press.
77. Maes M, Meltzer HY, Scharpe S, Bosmans E, Suy E, De Meester I, Calabrese J, Cosyns P (1993). Relationships between lower plasma L-tryptophan levels and immune-inflammatory variables in depression. Psychiatry Research 49, 151-165.
78. Maes M, Minner B, Suy E, Vandervorst C, Raus J (1991). Coexisting dysregulations of both the sympathoadrenal system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in melancholia. Journal of Neural Transmission (General Section) 85, 195-210.
79. Maes M, Van Gastel A, Delmeire L, Meltzer HY (1999). Decreased platelet alpha-2 adrenoceptor density in major depression: Effects of tricyclic antidepressants and fluoxetine. Biological Psychiatry 45, 278-284.
80. Maes M, Vandewoude M, Schotte C, Martin M, Blockx P (1990). Positive relationship between the catecholaminergic turnover and the DST results in depression. Psychological Medicine 20, 493-499.
81. Maier SF, Watkins LR (1998). Cytokines for psychologists: Implications of bidirectional immune-to-brain communication for understanding behavior, mood, and cognition. Psychological Review 105, 83-107.
82. Malaguarnera M, Di Fazio I, Restuccia S, Pistone G, Ferlito L, Rampello L (1998). Interferon alpha-induced depression in chronic hepatitis C patients, comparison between different types of interferon alpha. Neuropsychobiology 37, 93-97.
83. Malaguarnera M, Laurino A, Di Fazio I, Pistone G, Castorina M, Guccione N, Rampello L (2001). Neuropsychiatric effects and type of IFN-α in chronic hepatitis C. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research 21, 273-278.
84. Mapou RL, Law WA, Wagner K, Malone JL, Skillman DR (1996). Neuropsychological effects of interferon Alfa-n3 treatment in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected individuals. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 8, 74-81.
85. Maunder RG, Hunter JJ, Feinman SV (1998). Interferon treatment of hepatitis C associated with symptoms of PTSD. Psychosomatics 39, 461-464.
86. McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, Schiff ER, Shiffman ML, Lee WM, Rustgi VK, Goodman ZD, Ling MH, Cort S, Albrecht JK (1998). Interferon alfa-2b alone or in combination with ribavirin as initial treatment for chronic hepatitis C. Hepatitis Interventional Therapy Group. New England Journal of Medicine 339, 1485-1492.
87. Meurs E, Hovanessian AG (1988). Alpha-interferon inhibits the expression of heavy chain mu messenger RNA in Daudi cells. EMBO Journal 7, 1689-1696.
88. Mitrius JC, Micuni M, Arora RC, Meltzer HY, U'Prichard DC (1983). Responsiveness of alpha2-receptors is decreased in platelets from depressed patients [Abstract]. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 9, 990.
89. Mongeau R, Blier P, de Montigny C (1997). The serotonergic and noradrenergic systems of the hippocampus, their interactions and the effects of antidepressant treatments. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews 23, 145-195.
90. Monji A, Yoshida I, Tashiro K, Hayashi Y, Tashiro N (1998). A case of persistent manic depressive illness induced by interferon-alfa in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Psychosomatics 39, 562-564.
91. Morikawa O, Sakai N, Obara H, Saito N (1998). Effects of interferon-alpha, interferon-gamma and cAMP on the transcriptional regulation of the serotonin transporter. European Journal of Pharmacology 349, 317-324.
92. Mossner R, Daniel S, Schmitt A, Albert D, Lesch KP (2001). Modulation of serotonin transporter function by interleukin-4. Life Science 68, 873-880.
93. Mossner R, Heils A, Stober G, Okladnova O, Daniel S, Lesch KP (1998). Enhancement of serotonin transporter function by tumor necrosis factor alpha but not by interleukin-6. Neurochemistry International 33, 251-254.
94. Mulder RT, Ang M, Chapman B, Ross A, Stevens IF, Edgar C (2000). Interferon treatment is not associated with a worsening of psychiatric symptoms in patients with hepatitis C. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 15, 300-303.
95. Musselman DL, Lawson DH, Gumnick JF, Manatunga AK, Penna S, Goodkin RS, Greiner K, Nemeroff CB, Miller AH (2001). Paroxetine for the prevention of depression induced by high-dose interferon alfa. New England Journal of Medicine 344, 961-966.
96. Nemeroff CB (1996). The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Hypothesis of depression: New findings and new directions. Molecular Psychiatry 1, 336-342.
97. Nemeroff CB, Bissette G, Akil H, Fink M (1991). Neuropeptide concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Corticotrophin-releasing factor, beta-endorphin and somatostatin. British Journal of Psychiatry 158, 59-63.
98. Nemeroff CB, Widerlov E, Bissette G, Walleus H, Karlsson I, Eklund K, Kilts CD, Loosen PT, Vale W (1984). Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 226, 1342-1344.
99. Nozaki O, Takagi C, Takaoka K, Takata T, Yoshida M (1997). Psychiatric manifestations accompanying interferon therapy for patients with chronic hepatitis C: An overview of cases in Japan. Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 51, 175-180.
100. Oppenheim JJ, Ruscetti FW, Faltynek C (1994). Cytokines. In: Stites DP, Terr AI, Parslow T (Eds.), Basis and Clinical Immunology (pp. 870). Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.
101. Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB (1991). Physiology and pharmacology of corticotropin-releasing factor. Pharmacological Review 43, 425-473.
102. Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB (1993). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in the pathophysiology of affective and anxiety disorders: Laboratory and clinical studies. Ciba Foundation Symposium 172, 296-308.
103. Pardo N, Marti F, Fraga G, Illa J, Badell I, Peiro M, Bertran E, Garcia J, Rueda F, Cubells J (1996). High-dose systemic interleukin-2 therapy in stage IV neuroblastoma for one year after autologous bone marrow transplantation: Pilot study. Medical and Pediatric Oncology 27, 534-539.
104. Pariante CM, Orru MG, Baita A, Farci MG, Carpiniello B (1999). Treatment with interferon-alpha in patients with chronic hepatitis and mood or anxiety disorders. Lancet 354, 131-132.
105. Pavol MA, Meyers CA, Rexer JL, Valentine AD, Mattis PJ, Talpaz M (1995). Pattern of neurobehavioral deficits associated with interferon alfa therapy for leukemia. Neurology 45, 947-950.
106. Peters M, Ambrus JL, Zheleznyak A, Walling D, Hoofnagle JH (1986). Effect of interferon-alpha on immunoglobulin synthesis by human B cells. Journal of Immunology 137, 3153-3157.
107. Pfeffer LM, Dinarello CA, Herberman RB, Williams BR, Borden EC, Bordens R, Walter MR, Nagabhushan TL, Trotta PP, Pestka S (1998). Biological properties of recombinant alpha-interferons: 40th anniversary of the discovery of interferons. Cancer Research 58, 2489-2499.
108. Potter WZ, Scheinin M, Golden RN, Rudorfer MV, Cowdry RW, Calil HM, Ross RJ, Linnoila M (1985). Selective antidepressants and cerebrospinal fluid. Lack of specificity on norepinephrine and serotonin metabolites. Archives of General Psychiatry 42, 1171-1177.
109. Raadsheer FC, Hoogendijk WJ, Stam FC, Tilders FJ, Swaab DF (1994). Increased numbers of corticotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 60, 436-444.
110. Raadsheer FC, van Heerikhuize JJ, Lucassen PJ, Hoogendijk WJ, Tilders FJ, Swaab DF (1995). Corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA levels in the paraventricular nucleus of patients with Alzheimer's disease and depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 1372-1376.
111. Ramamoorthy S, Ramamoorthy JD, Prasad PD, Bhat GK, Mahesh VB, Leibach FH, Ganapathy V (1995). Regulation of the human serotonin transporter by interleukin-1 beta. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 216, 560-567.
112. Renault PF, Hoofnagle JH, Park Y, Mullen KD, Peters M, Jones DB, Rustgi V, Jones EA (1987). Psychiatric complications of long-term interferon alfa therapy. Archives of Internal Medicine 147, 1577-1580.
113. Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CB (2000). Role of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. Depresion and Anxiety 12, 2-19.
114. Rhodes J, Ivanyi J, Cozens P (1986). Antigen presentation by human monocytes: Effects of modifying major histocompatibility complex class II antigen expression and interleukin 1 production by using recombinant interferons and corticosteroids. European Journal of Immunology 16, 370-375.
115. Roy A, Kafka MS (1989). Platelet adrenoceptors and prostaglandin responses in depressed patients. Psychiatry Research 30, 181-189.
116. Roy A, Pickar D, De Jong J, Karoum F, Linnoila M (1988). Norepinephrine and its metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid, plasma, and urine. Relationship to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 849-857.
117. Sallee FR, Nesbitt L, Dougherty D, Hilal R, Nandagopal VS, Sethuraman G (1995). Lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor, predictor of sertraline response in adolescent major depressive disorder (MDD). Psychopharmacological Bulletin 31, 339-345.
118. 11C]WAY-100635: Effects of depression and antidepressant treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 174-180.
119. Schäfer M, Messer T, Wegner U, Schmid-Wendtner MH, Volkenandt M (1999). Psychiatric side effects during adjuvant therapy with interferon-alphain patients with malignant melanoma. Clinical evaluation as well as diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities. Der Hautarzt 50, 654-658.
120. Schildkraut JJ (1965). The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: A review of supporting evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry 122, 509-522.
121. Schmidt ED, Janszen AW, Wouterlood FG, Tilders FJ (1995). Interleukin-1-induced long-lasting changes in hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) -neurons and hyperresponsiveness of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Journal of Neuroscience 15, 7417-7426.
122. Schmidt ED, Tilders FJ, Binnekade R, Schoffelmeer ANM, De Vries TJ (In Press). Stressor or drug induced hypersecretion of corticosterone is not critically involved in the expression of long-term behavioral sensitization to amphetamine. Neuroscience.
123. Smith KA, Cowen PJ (1997). Serotonin and depression. In: Honig A, van Praag HM (Eds.), Depression: Neurobiological, Psychopathological and Therapeutic Advances. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
124. Staley JK, Malison RT, Innis RB (1998). Imaging of the serotonergic system: Interactions of neuroanatomical and functional abnormalities of depression. Biological Psychiatry 44, 534-549.
125. Stitt JT (1992). Prostaglandins, the OVLT and Fever. Oxford: Pergamon.
126. Tork I (1990). Anatomy of the serotonergic system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 600, 9-34.
127. van Dijken HH, de Goeij DC, Sutanto W, Mos J, de Kloet ER, Tilders FJ (1993). Short inescapable stress produces long-lasting changes in the brain-pituitary-adrenal axis of adult male rats. Neuroendocrinology 58, 57-64.
128. Wang J, Dunn AJ (1998). Mouse interleukin-6 stimulates the HPA axis and increases brain tryptophan and serotonin metabolism. Neurochemistry International 33, 143-154.
129. Webster JC, Oakley RH, Jewell CM, Cidlowski JA (2001). Proinflammatory cytokines regulate human glucocorticoid receptor gene expression and lead to the accumulation of the dominant negative beta isoform, a mechanism for the generation of glucocorticoid resistance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98, 6865-6870.
130. Whalley LJ, Borthwick N, Copolov D, Dick H, Christie JE, Fink G (1986). Glucocorticoid receptors and depression. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 292, 859-861.
131. Windemuth D, Bacharach-Buhles M, Hoffmann K, Altmeyer P (1999). Depression and suicidal intentions as a side effect of high dosage interferon-alpha therapy - Two cases. Der Hautarzt 50, 266-269.
132. Yatham LN, Liddle PF, Shiah IS, Scarrow G, Lam RW, Adam MJ, Zis AP, Ruth TJ (2000). Brain serotonin2 receptors in major depression: A positron emission tomography study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 850-858.
133. Yoshie O, Mellman IS, Broeze RJ, Garcia-Blanco M, Lengyel P (1982). Interferon action: Effects of mouse alpha and beta interferons on rosette formation, phagocytosis, and surface-antigen expression of cells of the macrophage-type line RAW 309Cr.1. Cellular Immunology 73, 128-140.
134. Zalcman S, Green-Johnson JM, Murray L, Nance DM, Dyck D, Anisman H, Greenberg AH (1994). Cytokine-specific central monoamine alterations induced by interleukin-1, -2 and -6. Brain Research 643, 40-49.