Inflammation and infection in clinical stroke

Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism

Volumn 22, Issue 12, 2002, Pages 1399-1419

  Emsley, Hedley C A ^a,b   Tyrrell, Pippa J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b HOPE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cytokines; Infection; Inflammation; Stroke, ischemic

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ACUTE PHASE PROTEIN; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; CYTOKINE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FIBRINOGEN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INFLUENZA VACCINE; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1 ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE; NITRIC OXIDE; NITRIC OXIDE DONOR; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; PARACETAMOL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ANTIBODY;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD CLOTTING; BODY TEMPERATURE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHLAMYDOPHILA PNEUMONIAE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TARGETING; ENCEPHALITIS; ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE; GENE EXPRESSION; GIANT CELL ARTERITIS; HEAD INJURY; HUMAN; IMAGING; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; LEUKOCYTE; META ANALYSIS; MICROGLIA; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NEUROPROTECTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; STROKE; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; VACCINATION;

EID: 0036897540     PISSN: 0271678X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.WCB.0000037880.62590.28     Document Type: Review

References (270)

1. Adams RD, Sidman RL (1968) Introduction To Neuropathology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1968:172-175
2. Akopov SE, Simonian NA, Grigorian GS (1996) Dynamics of polymorphonuclear leukocyte accumulation in acute cerebral infarction and their correlation with brain tissue damage. Stroke 27:1739-1743
3. Albert MA, Danielson E, Rifai N, Ridker PM for the PRINCE investigators (2001) Effect of statin therapy on C-reactive protein levels: The pravastatin inflammation/CRP evaluation (PRINCE): A randomised trial and cohort study. JAMA 286:64-70
4. Allan SM, Rothwell NJ (2001) Cytokines and acute neurodegeneration [review]. Nat Rev Neurosci 2:734-744
5. Ameriso SF, Wong VLY, Quismorio FP, Fisher M (1991) Immunohematologic characteristics of infection-associated cerebral infarction. Stroke 22:1004-1009
6. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration (2002) Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high-risk patients. BMJ 324:71-86
7. Askalan R, Laughlin S, Mayank S, Chan A, MacGregor D, Andrew M, Curtis R, Meaney B, de Veber G (2001) Chickenpox and stroke in childhood: A study of frequency and causation. Stroke 32:1257-1262
8. Astrup J, Siesjö BK, Symon L (1981) Thresholds in cerebral ischemia: The ischemic penumbra. Stroke 12:723-725
9. Baeuerle PA, Henkel T (1994) Function and activation of NF-κB in the immune system. Annu Rev Immunol 12:141-179
10. Balestrino M, Partinico D, Finocchi C, Gandolfo C (1998) White blood cell count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate correlate with outcome in patients with acute ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 7:139-144
11. 3H]PK11195 binding to activated microglia. J Neurocytol 26:77-82
12. Barath P, Fishbein MC, Cao J, Berenson J, Helfant RH, Forrester JS (1990) Detection and localization of tumor necrosis factor in human atheroma. Am J Cardiol 65:297-302
13. Barinagarrementeria F, Cantú C (1998) Frequency of cerebral arteritis in subarachnoid cysticercosis: An angiographic study. Stroke 29:123-125
14. Barone FC, Feuerstein GZ (1999) Inflammatory mediators and stroke: New opportunities for novel therapeutics [review]. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:819-834
15. Barone FC, Arvin B, White RF, Miller A. Webb CL, Willette RN, Lysko PG, Feuerstein (1997) Tumor necrosis factor-α: A mediator of focal ischemic brain injury. Stroke 28:1233-1244
16. Bath PM (2002) Efficacy of nitric oxide in stroke (ENOS) trial [abstract]. Stroke 33:648-649
17. Beamer NB, Coull BM, Clark WM, Hazel JS, Silberger JR (1995) Interleukin-6 and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in acute stroke. Ann Neurol 37:800-804
18. Bednar MM, Gross CE, Russell SR, Fuller SP, Ellenberger CL, Schindler E, Klingbeil C, Vexler V (1998) Humanized anti-L-selectin monoclonal antibody DREG200 therapy in acute thromboembolic stroke. Neurol Res 20:403-408
19. Belch J, Mclaren M, Hanslip J, Hill A, Davidson D (1998) The white blood cell and plasma fibrinogen in thrombotic stroke: A significant correlation. Int Angiol 17:120-124
20. Belman AL, Leicher CR, Moshé SL, Mezey AP (1985) Neurologic manifestations of Schoenlein-Henoch purpura: Report of three cases and review of the literature. Pediatrics 75:687-692
21. Benomar A, Yahyaoui M. Birouk N, Vidailhet M, Chkili T (1994) Middle cerebral artery occlusion due to hydatid cysts of myocardial and intraventricular cavity cardiac origin. Stroke 25:886-888
22. Benveniste EN (1998) Cytokine actions in the central nervous system [review]. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 9:259-275
23. Betz AL, Yang G-Y, Davidson BL (1995) Attenuation of stroke size in rats using an adenoviral vector to induce over expression of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:547-551
24. Bickerstaff ER (1964) Etiology of acute hemiplegia in childhood. BMJ 2:82-87
25. Bitsch A, Klene W, Murtada L, Prange H, Rieckmann P (1998) A longitudinal prospective study of soluble adhesion molecules in acute stroke. Stroke 29:2129-2135
26. Black DA, Maw DSJ (1984) Toxic shock syndrome presenting as cerebral infarct [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47:568
27. Blake GJ, Ridker PM (2001) Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation [review]. Circ Res 89:763-771
28. Blam ME, Stein RB, Lichtenstein GR (2001) Integrating anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy in inflammatory bowel disease: Current and future perspectives [review]. Am J Gastroenterol 96:1977-1997
29. Blann A, Kumar P, Krupinski J, McCollum C, Beevers DG, Lip GYH (1999) Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, E-selectin, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and von Willebrand factor in stroke. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 10:277-284
30. Bova IY, Bornstein NM, Korczyn AD (1996) Acute infection as a risk factor for ischemic stroke. Stroke 27:2204-2206
31. Bowes MP, Rothlein R, Fagan SC, Zivin JA (1995) Monoclonal antibodies preventing leukocyte activation reduce experimental neurologic injury and enhance efficacy of thrombolytic therapy. Neurology 45:815-819
32. Boysen G, Christensen H (2001) Stroke severity determines body temperature in acute stroke. Stroke 32:413-417
33. Bresnihan B, Alvaro-Gracia JM, Cobby M, Doherty M, Domljan Z, Emery P, Nuki G, Pavelka K, Rau R, Rozman B, Watt I, Williams B, Aitchison R, McCabe D, Musikic P (1998) Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with recombinant human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Arthritis Rheum 41:2196-2204
34. Brown MM, Thompson AJ, Wedzicha JA, Swash M (1989) Sarcoidosis presenting with stroke. Stroke 20:400-405
35. Bruce AJ, Boling W, Kindy MS, Peschon J, Kraemer PJ, Carpenter MK, Holtsberg FW, Mattson MP (1996) Altered neuronal and microglial responses to excitotoxic and ischemic brain injury in mice lacking TNF receptors. Nat Med 2:788-794
36. Bulkley BH, Roberts WC (1975) The heart in systemic lupus erythematosus and the changes induced in it by corticosteroid therapy: A study of 36 necropsy patients. Am J Med 58:243-264
37. Buttini M, Appel K, Sauter A, Gebicke-Haerter P-J, Boddeke HWGM (1996) Expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. Neuroscience 71:1-16
38. Campbell LA, Rosenfeld M, Kuo C-C (2000) The role of Chlamydia pneumoniae in atherosclerosis-recent evidence from animal models [review]. Trends Microbiol 8:255-257
39. Carlstedt F, Lind L, Lindahl B (1997) Proinflammatory cytokines, measured in a mixed population on arrival in the emergency department, are related to mortality and severity of disease. J Intern Med 242:361-365
40. Carroll JE, Hess DC, Howard EF, Hill WD (2000) Is nuclear factor-κB a good treatment target in brain ischemia/reperfusion injury? [review]. Neuroreport 11:R1-R4
41. Caselli RJ, Hunder GG, Whisnant JP (1988) Neurologic disease in biopsy-proven giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Neurology 38:352-359
42. Castellanos M, Castillo J, García MM, Leira R, Serena J, Chamorro A, Dávalos A (2002) Inflammation-mediated damage in progressing lacunar infarctions: A potential therapeutic target. Stroke 33:982-987
43. Cermak J, Key NS, Bach RR, Balla J, Jacob HS, Vercellotti GM (1993) C-reactive protein induces human peripheral blood monocytes to synthesize tissue factor. Blood 82:513-520
44. Chae CU, Lee RT, Rifai N, Ridker PM (2001) Blood pressure and inflammation in apparently healthy men. Hypertension 38:399-403
45. Chamorro A, Vila N, Ascaso C. Saiz A, Montalvo J, Alonso P, Tolosa E (1995) Early prediction of stroke severity: Role of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Stroke 26:573-576
46. Chamorro A, Vila N, Blanc R, Saiz A, Ascaso C, Deulofeu R (1997) The prognostic value of the acute-phase response in stroke recurrence. Eur J Neurol 4:491-497
47. Chiu B, Viira E, Tucker W, Fong IW (1997) Chlamydia pneumoniae, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus in atherosclerosis of the carotid artery. Circulation 96:2144-2148
48. Clark AW, Krekowski CA, Bou SS. Chapman KR, Edwards DR (1997) Increased gelatinase A (MMP-2) and gelatinase B (MMP-9) activities in human brain after focal ischemia. Neurosci Lett 238:53-56
49. Clark WM, Coull BM, Briley DP, Mainolfi E, Rothlein R (1993) Circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels and neutrophil adhesion in stroke. J Neuroimmunol 44:123-126
50. Collins PR, Peto R (2002) MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study [abstract]. Stroke 33:651
51. Connolly JH, Hutchinson WM, Allen IV, Lyttle JA, Swallow MW, Dermott E, Thomson D (1975) Carotid artery thrombosis, encephalitis, myelitis and optic neuritis associated with rubella virus infections. Brain 98:583-594
52. Connor MD, Lammie GA, Bell JE, Warlow CP, Simmonds P, Brettle RD (2000) Cerebral infarction in adult AIDS patients: Observations from the Edinburgh HIV autopsy cohort. Stroke 31:2117-2126
53. Cook PJ, Honeybourne D, Lip GYH, Beevers G, Wise R, Davies P (1998) Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: The West Birmingham stroke project. Stroke 29:404-410
54. Corbett D, Thornhill J (2000) Temperature modulation (hypothermic and hyperthermic conditions) and its influence on histologic and behavioral outcomes following cerebral ischemia. Brain Pathol 10:145-152
55. Crouse JR, Byington RP, Furberg CD (1998) HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor therapy and stroke risk reduction: An analysis of clinical trials data [review]. Atherosclerosis 138:11-24
56. Dahlöf B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire U, Fyhrquist F, Ibsen H, Kristiansson K, Lederballe-Pedersen O, Lindholm LH, Nieminen MS, Omvik P, Oparil S, Wedel H and LIFE study group (2002) Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): A randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 359:995-1003
57. Dalal PM, Dalal KP (1989) Cerebrovascular manifestations of infectious disease. In: Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, eds), New York, NY: Elsevier Science, p 411
58. Danesh J, Collins R, Peto R (1997) Chronic infections and coronary heart disease: Is there a link? [review]. Lancet 350:430-436
59. Dawson DA, Martin D, Hallenbeck JM (1996) Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha reduces focal cerebral ischemic injury in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Neurosci Lett 218:41-44
60. DeGraba TJ (1998) The role of inflammation after acute stroke: Utility of pursuing anti-adhesion molecule therapy [review]. Neurology 51(suppl 3):S62-S68
61. DeGraba TJ, Sirén A-L, Penix L, McCarron RM, Hargraves R, Sood S, Pettigrew KD, Hallenbeck JM (1998) Increased endothelial expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in symptomatic versus asymptomatic human carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Stroke 29:1405-1410
62. Del Brutto OH (1992) Cysticercosis and cerebrovascular disease: A review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:252-254
63. Del Brutto OH (2000) Central nervous system mycotic infections [review]. Rev Neurol 30:447-459
64. Del Mar Sáez de Ocariz M, Nader JA, del Brutto OH, Santos Zambrano JA (1996) Cerebrovascular complications of neurosyphilis: The return of an old problem [review]. Cerebrovasc Dis 6:195-201
65. Del Zoppo G, Schmid-Schönbein GW, Mori E, Copeland BR, Chang C-M (1991) Polymorphonuclear leukocytes occlude capillaries following middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion in baboons. Stroke 22:1276-1283
66. Del Zoppo G, Ginis I, Hallenbeck JM, Iadecola C, Wang X, Feuerstein GZ (2000) Inflammation and stroke: Putative role for cytokines, adhesion molecules and iNOS in brain response to ischemia [review]. Brain Pathol 10:95-112
67. Del Zoppo G, Becker KJ, Hallenbeck JM (2001) Inflammation after stroke: Is it harmful? [review]. Arch Neurol 58:669-672
68. de Maat MPM, Kluft C (2001) Determinants of C-reactive protein concentration in blood. Ital Heart J 2:189-195
69. D'Erasmo E, Acca M, Celi FS, Mazzuoli G (1991) Correlation between plasma fibrinogen levels and white blood cell count after cerebral infarction. Stroke 22:1089
70. Devinsky O, Petito CK, Alonso DR (1988) Clinical and neuropathological findings in systemic lupus erythematosus: The role of vasculitis, heart emboli, and thrombotic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Ann Neurol 23:380-384
71. Di Napoli M (2001) Early inflammatory response in ischemic stroke. Thromb Res 103:261-264
72. Di Napoli M, Papa F (2001) Inflammation, statins, and outcome after ischemic stroke [letter]. Stroke 32:2446-2447
73. Di Napoli M, Papa F, Bocola V (2001) Prognostic influence of increased C-reactive protein and fibrinogen levels in ischemic stroke. Stroke 32:133-138
74. Dippel DWJ, van Breda EJ, van Gemert HMA, van der Worp HB, Meijer RJ, Kappelle LJ, Koudstaal PJ, on behalf of the PAPAS Investigators (2001) Effect of paracetamol (acetaminophen) on body tempera31yture in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 32:1607-1612
75. Dowd AB, Grace R, Rees WDW (1987) Cerebral infarction associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection [letter]. Lancet 2:567
76. Dubrovsky T, Curless R, Scott G. Chaneles M, Post MJD, Altman N, Petito CK, Start D. Wood C (1998) Cerebral aneurysmal arteriopathy in childhood AIDS [review]. Neurology 51:560-565
77. Eidelberg D, Sotrel A. Horoupian DS, Neumann PE, Pumarola-Sune T, Price RW (1986) Thrombotic cerebral vasculopathy associated with herpes zoster. Ann Neurol 19:7-14
78. Elkind MS, Cheng J, Boden-Albala B, Rundek T, Thomas J, Chen H, Rabbani LE, Sacco RL (2002) Tumor necrosis factor receptor levels are associated with carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke 33:31-38
79. Elkind MSV, Lin I-F, Grayston JT, Sacco RL (2000) Chlamydia pneumoniae and the risk of first ischemic stroke: The Northern Manhattan stroke study. Stroke 31:1521-1525
80. Endres M, Laufs U, Metz H, Kaps M (1997) Focal expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in the human carotid bifurcation. Stroke 28:77-82
81. Enlimomab Acute Stroke Trial Investigators (2001) Use of anti-ICAM-1 therapy in ischemic stroke: Results of the enlimomab acute stroke trial. Neurology 57:1428-1434
82. Ernst E, Hammerschmidt DE, Bagge U, Matrai A, Dormandy JA (1987) Leukocytes and the risk of ischemic diseases [review]. JAMA 257:2318-2324
83. Erren M, Reinecke H, Junker R, Fobker M, Schulte H, Schurek JO, Kropf J, Kerber S, Breithardt G, Assmann G, Cullen P (1999) Systemic inflammatory parameters in patients with atherosclerosis of the coronary and peripheral arteries. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19:2355-2363
84. Fagerberg B, Gnarpe J, Gnarpe H, Agewall S, Wikstrand J (1999) Chlamydia pneumoniae but not cytomegalovirus antibodies are associated with future risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease: A prospective study in middle-aged to elderly men with treated hypertension. Stroke 30:299-305
85. Fassbender K, Rossol S, Kammer T, Daffertshofer M, Wirth S. Dollman M, Hennerici M (1994) Proinflammatory cytokines in the serum of patients with acute cerebral ischemia: Kinetics of secretion and relation to the extent of brain damage and outcome of disease. J Neurol Sci 122:135-139
86. Fassbender K, Mössner R, Motsch L, Kischka U, Grau A, Hennerici M (1995) Circulating selectin- and immunoglobulin-type adhesion molecules in acute ischemic stroke. Stoke 26:1361-1364
87. Fassbender K, Dempfle C-E, Mielke O, Rossol S, Schneider S, Dollman M, Hennerici M (1997) Proinflammatory cytokines: Indicators of infection in high-risk patients. J Lab Clin Med J 130:535-539
88. Fassbender K, Bertsch T, Mielke O, Mühlhauser F, Hennerici M (1999) Adhesion molecules in cerebrovascular diseases: Evidence for an inflammatory endothelial activation in cerebral large- and small-vessel disease. Stroke 30:1647-1650
89. Fassbender K, Hodapp B, Rossol S, Bertsch T, Schmeck J, Schutt S, Fritzinger M, Horn P, Vajkoczy P, Kreisel S, Brunner J, Schmiedek P, Hennerici M (2001) Inflammatory cytokines in subarachnoid hemorrhage: Association with abnormal blood flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70:534-537
90. Ferrarese C, Mascarucci P, Zoia C, Cavarretta R, Frigo M, Begni B, Sarinella F, Frattola L, De Simoni MG (1999) Increased cytokine release from peripheral blood cells after acute stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:1004-1009
91. Feuerstein GZ, Wang X (2001) Inflammation and stroke: Benefits without harm? [review]. Arch Neurol 58:672-673
92. Forster C, Clark HB, Ross ME, Iadecola C (1999) Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in human cerebral infarcts. Acta Neuropathol 97:215-220
93. Forwell MA, Redding PJ, Brodie MJ (1984) Leptospirosis complicated by fatal intracerebral hemorrhage. BMJ 289:1583
94. Fourestie V, Douceron H, Brugieres P, Ancelle T, Lejonc JL, Gherardi RK (1993) Neurotrichinosis: A cerebrovascular disease associated with myocardial injury and hypereosinophilia. Brain 116:603-616
95. Fu M, Wong KS, Lam WWM, Wong GWK (1998) Middle cerebral artery occlusion after recent Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. J Neurol Sci 157:113-115
96. Fukomoto S, Kinjo M, Hokamura K, Tanaka K (1986) Subarachnoid hemorrhage and granulomatous angiitis of the basilar artery: Demonstration of the varicella-zoster-virus in the basilar artery lesions. Stroke 17:1024-1028
97. Furuya K, Takeda H, Azhar S, McCarron RM, Chen Y, Ruetzler CA, Wolcott KM, DeGraba TJ, Rothlein R, Hugli TE, del Zoppo GJ, Hallenbeck JM (2001) Examination of several potential mechanisms for the negative outcome in a clinical stroke trial of enlimomab, a murine anti-human intercellular adhesion molecule-1 antibody: A bedside-to-bench study. Stroke 32:2665-2674
98. Galea J, Armstrong J, Gadsdon P, Holden H, Francis SE, Holt CM (1996) Interleukin-1β in coronary arteries of patients with ischemic heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 16:1000-1006
99. Ganesan V, Kirkham FJ (1997) Mechanisms of ischemic stroke after chickenpox. Arch Dis Child 76:522-525
100. Garcia JH, Liu KF, Yoshida Y, Lian J, Chen S, del Zoppo GJ (1994) Influx of leukocytes and platelets in an evolving brain infarct (Wistar rat). Am J Pathol 144:188-199
101. 11C]PK11195 and positron emission tomography in patients after ischemic stroke. Neuroreport 11:2957-2960
102. Gibbs RGJ, Sian M, Mitchell AWM, Greenhalgh RM, Davies AH, Carey N (2000) Chlamydia pneumoniae does not influence atherosclerotic plaque behavior in patients with established carotid artery stenosis. Stroke 31:2930-2935
103. Ginsberg MD, Busto R (1998) Combating hyperthermia in acute stroke: A significant clinical concern [review]. Stroke 29:529-534
104. Glader CA, Stegmayr B, Boman J, Stenlund H, Weinehall L, Hallmans G, Dahlén GH (1999) Chlamydia pneumoniae antibodies and high lipoprotein(a) levels do not predict ischemic cerebral infarctions: Results from a nested case-control study in northern Sweden. Stroke 30:2013-2018
105. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Heindl S, Steichen-Wiehn C, Banerjee T, Maiwald M, Rohlfs M, Suhr H, Fiehn W, Becher H, Hacke W (1995a) Recent infection as a risk factor for cerebrovascular ischemia. Stroke 26:373-379
106. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Steichen-Wiehn C, Heindl S, Banerjee T, Seitz R, Winter R, Forsting M, Werle E, Bode C, Nawroth P-P, Becher H, Hacke W (1995b) Clinical and biochemical analysis in infection-associated stroke. Stroke 26:1520-1526
107. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Ziegler C, Schwarz W, Meuser J, Tasman A-J, Bühler A, Benesch C, Becher H, Hacke W (1997) Association between acute cerebrovascular ischemia and chronic and recurrent infection. Stroke 28:1724-1729
108. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Becher H, Zimmermann E, Spiel M, Fent T, Maiwald M, Werle E, Zorn M, Hengel H, Hacke W (1998a) Recent bacterial and viral infection is a risk factor for cerebrovascular ischemia: Clinical and biochemical studies. Neurology 50:196-203
109. Grau AJ, Eckstein H-H, Schäfer B, Schnabel PA, Brandt T, Hacke W (1998b) Stroke from internal carotid artery occlusion during mumps infection. J Neurol Sci 155:215-217
110. Grau AJ, Brandt T, Buggle F, Orberk E, Mytilineos J, Werle E, Conradt C, Krause M, Winter R, Hacke W (1999) Association of cervical artery dissection with recent infection. Arch Neurol 56:851-856
111. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Lichy C, Brandt T, Becher H, Rudi J (2001) Helicobacter pylori infection as an independent risk factor for cerebral ischemia of atherothrombotic origin. J Neurol Sci 186:1-5
112. Grayston JT (1999) Antibiotic treatment trials for secondary prevention of coronary artery disease events. Circulation 99:1538-1539
113. Grayston JT, Campbell LA, Kuo C-C, Mordhorst CH, Saikku P, Thom DH, Wang S-P (1990) A new respiratory tract pathogen: Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TWAR. J Infect Dis 161:618-625
114. Grayston JT, Kuo C-C, Coulson AS, Campbell LA, Lawrence RD. Lee MJ, Strandness ED, Wang S-P (1995) Chlamydia pneumoniae (TWAR) in atherosclerosis of the carotid artery. Circulation 92:3397-3400
115. Gregersen R, Lambertsen K, Finsen B (2000) Microglia and macrophages are the major source of tumor necrosis factor in permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20:53-65
116. Grilli M, Pizzi M, Memo M, Spano P (1996) Neuroprotection by aspirin and sodium salicylate through blockade of NF-κB activation. Science 274:1383-1385
117. Gussekloo J, Schaap MCL, Frölich M, Blauw GJ, Westendorp RGJ (2000) C-reactive protein is a strong but non-specific risk factor of fatal stroke in elderly persons. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20:1047-1051
118. Haas LF (1982) Stroke as an early manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 45:554-556
119. Hajat C, Hajat S, Sharma P (2000) Effects of poststroke pyrexia on stroke outcome. Stroke 31:410-414
120. Hall S, Barr W, Lie JT, Stanson AW, Kazmier FJ, Hunder GG (1985) Takayasu arteritis: A study of 32 North American patients. Medicine 64:89-99
121. Hallenbeck JM (1996) Inflammatory reactions at the blood-endothelial interface in acute stroke [review]. Adv Neurol 71:281-297
122. Hankey GJ (1991) Isolated angiitis/angiopathy of the central nervous system [review]. Cerebrovasc Dis 1:2-15
123. Härtl R, Schürer L, Schmid-Schönbein GW, del Zoppo GJ (1996) Experimental antileukocyte interventions in cerebral ischemia [review]. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16:1108-1119
124. Heiss W-D, Forsting M, Diener H-C (2001a) Imaging in cerebrovascular disease [review]. Curr Opin Neurol 14:67-75
125. Heiss W-D, Kracht LW, Thiel A, Grond M, Pawlik G (2001b) Penumbral probability thresholds of cortical flumazenil binding and blood flow predicting tissue outcome in patients with cerebral ischemia. Brain 124:20-29
126. Hess DC, Bhutwala T, Sheppard JC, Zhao W, Smith J (1994) ICAM-1 expression on human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Neurosci Lett 168:201-204
127. Heuschmann PU, Neureiter D, Gesslein M, Craiovan B, Maass M, Faller G, Beck G. Neundoerfer B, Kolominsky-Rabas PL (2001) Association between infection with Helicobacter pylori and Chlamydia pneumoniae and risk of ischemic stroke subtypes: Results from a population-based case-control study. Stroke 32:2253-2258
128. Howell TH, Ridker PM, Ajani UA, Hennekens CH, Christen WG (2001) Periodontal disease and risk of subsequent cardiovascular disease in US male physicians. J Am Coll Cardiol 37:445-450
129. Hu Z, Yang Q, Zheng S, Tang J, Lu W, Xu N, Shong X, Jang B (2000) Temporal arteritis and fever: Report of a case and a clinical reanalysis of 360 cases. Angiology 51:953-958
130. Huang Z-S, Jeng J-S, Wang C-H, Yip P-K, Wu T-H, Lee T-K (2001) Correlations between peripheral differential leukocyte counts and carotid atherosclerosis in non-smokers. Atherosclerosis 158:431-436
131. Hwang S-J, Ballantyne CM, Sharrett AR, Smith LC, Davis CE, Gotto AM, Boerwinkle E (1997) Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases. Circulation 96:4219-4225
132. Iadecola C, Forster C, Nogawa S, Clark HB, Ross ME (1999) Cyclooxygenase-2 immunoreactivity in the human brain following cerebral ischemia. Acta Neuropathol 98:9-14
133. Igarashi M, Gilmartin RC, Gerald B, Wilburn F, Jabbour JT (1984) Cerebral arteritis and bacterial meningitis. Arch Neurol 41:531-535
134. Intiso D, Cioffi R, Lagioia G, Checchia de Ambrosio C, Apollo F, di Viesti P, Fogli D, Simone P, Tonali P (1997) TNF-α in acute ischemic stroke [abstract]. Eur J Neurol 4(suppl 1):S82-S83
135. Jean WC, Spellman SR, Nussbaum ES, Low WC (1998) Reperfusion injury after focal cerebral ischemia: Role of inflammation and the therapeutic horizon [review]. Neurosurgery 43:1382-1397
136. Kalashnikova LA, Nasonov EL, Stoyanovich LZ, Kovalyov VU, Kosheleva NM, Reshetnyak TM (1994) Sneddon's syndrome and the primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Cerebrovasc Dis 4:76-82
137. Kaste M (2001) Thrombolysis in ischemic stroke - Present and future: Role of combined therapy [review]. Cerebrovasc Dis 11(suppl 1):55-59
138. Kato H, Walz W (2000) The initiation of the microglial response [review]. Brain Pathol 10:137-143
139. Khamashta MA, Cervera R, Asherson RA, Font J, Gil A, Coltart DJ, Vázquez JJ, Paré C, Ingelmo M, Olivier J, Hughes GRV (1990) Association of antibodies against phospholipids with heart valve disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 335:1541-1544
140. Kim HM, Shin HY, Jeong HJ, An HJ, Kim NS, Chae HJ, Kim HR, Song HJ, Kim KY, Baek SH, Cho KH, Moon BS, Lee YM (2000) Reduced IL-2 but elevated IL-4, IL-6, and IgE serum levels in patients with cerebral infarction during the acute stage. J Mol Neurosci 14:191-196
141. Kim JS, Yoon SS, Kim YH, Ryu JS (1996) Serial measurement of interleukin-6, transforming growth factor-β, and S-100 protein in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 27:1553-1557
142. Kitagawa Y, Gotoh F, Koto A, Okayasu H (1990) Stroke in systemic lupus erythematosus. Stroke 21:1533-1539
143. Kochanek PM, Hallenbeck JM (1992) Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocytes/macrophages in the pathogenesis of cerebral ischemia and stroke [review]. Stroke 23:1367-1379
144. Kostulas N, Kivisäkk P, Huang Y, Matusevicius D, Kostulas V, Link H (1998) Ischemic stroke is associated with a systemic increase of blood mononuclear cells expressing IL-8 mRNA. Stroke 29:462-466
145. Kostulas N, Pelidou SH, Kivisäkk P, Kostulas V, Link H (1999) Increased IL-1β, IL-8, and IL-17 mRNA expression in blood mononuclear cells observed in a prospective ischemic stroke study. Stroke 30:2174-2179
146. Krespi Y, Akman-Demir G, Poyraz M, Tugcu B, Coban O, Tuncay R, Serdaroglu P, Bahar S (2001) Cerebral vasculitis and ischemic stroke in Behçet's disease: Report of one case and review of the literature [review]. Eur J Neurol 8:719-722
147. Krieger DW, De Georgia MA, Abou-Chebl A, Andrefsky JC, Sila CA, Katzan IL, Mayberg MR, Furlan AJ (2001) Cooling for acute ischemic brain damage (COOL AID): An open pilot study of induced hypothermia in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 32:1847-1854
148. Krupinski J, Kumar P, Kumar S, Kaluza J (1996) Increased expression of TGF-β1 in brain tissue after ischemic stroke in humans. Stroke 27:852-857
149. LaBiche R, Koziol D, Quinn TC, Gaydos C, Azhar S, Ketron G, Sood S, DeGraba TJ (2001) Presence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in human symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Stroke 32:855-860
150. Lan S-H, Chang W-N, Lu C-H, Lui C-C, Chang H-W (2001) Cerebral infarction in chronic meningitis: A comparison of tuberculous meningitis and cryptococcal meningitis. Q J Med 94:247-253
151. Lanthier S, Lortie A, Michaud J, Laxer R, Jay V, deVeber G (2001) Isolated angiitis of the CNS in children. Neurology 56:837-842
152. Lavallée P, Perchaud V, Gautier-Bertrand M, Grabli D, Amarenco P (2002) Association between influenza vaccination and reduced risk of brain infarction. Stroke 33:513-518
153. Lawrence T, Gilroy DW, Colville-Nash PR, Willoughby DA (2001) Possible new role for NF-κB in the resolution of inflammation. Nat Med 7:1291-1297
154. Leber SM, Brunberg JA, Pavkovic IM (1995) Infarction of basal ganglia associated with California encephalitis virus. Pediatr Neurol 12:346-349
155. Lee JE, Haynes JM (1967) Carotid arteritis and cerebral infarction due to scleroderma. Neurology 17:18-22
156. 1 after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. Glia 24:437-448
157. Leopold NA (1993) Chickenpox stroke in an adult. Neurology 43:1852-1853
158. Li H-L, Kostulas N, Huang Y-M, Xiao B-G, van der Meide P, Kostulas V, Giedraitas V, Link H (2001) IL-17 and IFN-β mRNA expression is increased in the brain and systemically after permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. J Neuroimmunol 116:5-14
159. Libby P (2001) Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 104:365-372
160. Liebeskind DS, Kasner SE (2001) Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke - An unattainable goal? CNS Drugs 15:165-174
161. Lindsberg PJ, Carpen O, Paetau A, Karjalainen-Lindsberg M-L, Kaste M (1996) Endothelial ICAM-1 expression associated with inflammatory cell response in human ischemic stroke. Circulation 94:939-945
162. Liu T, Clark RK, McDonnell PC, Young PR, White RF, Barone FC, Feuerstein GZ (1994) Tumor necrosis factor-α expression in ischemic neurons. Stroke 25:1481-1488
163. Loddick SA, Wong M-L, Bongiomo PB, Gold PW, Licinio J, Rothwell NJ (1997) Endogenous interleukin-1 receptor antagonist is neuroprotective. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 234:211-215
164. Loddick SA, Turnbull AV, Rothwell NJ (1998) Cerebral interleukin-6 is neuroprotective during permanent focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:176-179
165. Lossos A, Ben-Hur T, Ben-Nariah Z, Enk C, Gomori M, Soffer D (1995a) Familial Sneddon's syndrome. J Neurol 242:164-168
166. Lossos A, River Y, Eliakim A, Steiner I (1995b) Neurologic aspects of inflammatory bowel disease. Neurology 45:416-421
167. Losy J, Zaremba J (2001) Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 is increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with ischemic stroke. Stroke 32:2695-2696
168. Lupi-Herrera E, Sánchez-Torres G, Marcushamer J, Mispireta J, Horwitz S, Espino Vela J (1977) Takayasu's arteritis: Clinical study of 107 cases. Am Heart J 93:94-103
169. Macko RF, Ameriso SF, Barndt R, Clough W, Weiner JM, Fisher M (1996a) Precipitants of brain infarction: Roles of preceding infection/inflammation and recent psychological stress. Stroke 27:1999-2004
170. Macko RF, Ameriso SF, Gruber A, Griffin JH, Fernandez JA, Barndt R, Quismorio A, Weiner JM, Fisher M (1996b) Impairments of the protein C system and fibrinolysis in infection-associated stroke. Stroke 27:2005-2011
171. Markus HS, Mendall MA (1998) Helicobacter pylori infection: A risk factor for ischemic cerebrovascular disease and carotid atheroma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64:104-107
172. Melanson M, Chalk C, Georgevich L, Fett K, Lapierre Y, Duong H, Richardson J, Marineau C, Rouleau GA (1996) Varicella-zoster virus DNA in CSF and arteries in delayed contralateral hemiplegia: Evidence for viral invasion of cerebral arteries. Neurology 47:569-570
173. Mendall MA, Patel P, Ballam L, Strachan D, Northfield TC (1996) C-reactive protein and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: A population based cross sectional study. BMJ 312:1061-1065
174. Mennicken F, Maki R, de Souza EB, Quirion R (1999) Chemokines and chemokine receptors in the CNS: A possible role in neuroinflammation and patterning. Trends Pharmacol Sci 20:73-77
175. Mischel PS, Vinters HV (1995) Coccidioidomycosis of the central nervous system: Neuropathological and vasculopathic manifestations and clinical correlates. Clin Infect Dis 20:400-405
176. Mitsias P, Levine SR (1994) Large cerebral vessel occlusive disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 44:385-393
177. Mohler ER, Delanty N, Rader DJ, Raps EC (1999) Statins and cerebrovascular disease: Plaque attack to prevent brain attack. Vasc Med 4:269-272
178. Montalbán J, Rio J, Khamastha M, Davalos A, Codina M, Swana GT, Calcagnotto ME, Sumalla J, Mederer S, Gil A, Hughes GRV, Codina A (1994) Value of immunologic testing in stroke patients: A prospective multicenter study, Stroke 25:2412-2415
179. Montaner J, Alvarez-Sabín J, Molina C, Anglés A, Abilleira S, Arenillas J, González MA, Monasterio J (2001) Matrix metalloproteinase expression after human cardioembolic stroke: Temporal profile and relation to neurological impairment. Stroke 32:1759-1766
180. Moore PM, Fauci AS (1981) Neurologic manifestations of systemic vasculitis: A retrospective and prospective study of the clinicopathologic features and responses to therapy in 25 patients. Am J Med 71:517-524
181. Muir KW, Squire IB, Alwan W, Lees KR (1994) Anticardiolipin antibodies in an unselected stroke population. Lancet 344:452-456
182. Muir KW, Weir CJ, Alwan W, Squire IB, Lees KR (1999) C-reactive protein and outcome after ischemic stroke, Stroke 30:981-985
183. Mulder LJMM, Spierings ELH (1987) Stroke due to intravascular coagulation in Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Lancet 2:1152-1153
184. Mun-Bryce S, Rosenberg GA (1998) Matrix metalloproteinases in cerebrovascular disease [review]. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:1163-1172
185. Mussack T, Biberthaler P, Gippner-Steppart C, Kanz K-G, Wiedemann E, Mutschler W, Jochum M (2001) Early cellular brain damage and systemic inflammatory response after cardiopulmonary resuscitation or isolated severe head trauma: A comparative pilot study on common pathomechanisms. Resuscitation 49:193-199
186. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group (1995) Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 333:1581-1587
187. Nishino H, Rubino FA, Parisi JE (1993) The spectrum of neurologic involvement in Wegener's granulomatosis. Neurology 43:1334-1337
188. Oksi J, Kalimo H, Marttila RJ, Marjamäki M, Sonninen P, Nikoskelainen J, Viljanen MK (1998) Intracranial aneurysms in three patients with disseminated Lyme borreliosis: Cause or chance association? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64:636-642
189. 11C]PK11195. Neurology 55:1052-1054
190. Pasceri V, Willerson JT, Yeh ETH (2000) Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation 102:2165-2168
191. Pelidou S-H, Kostulas N, Matusevicius D, Kivisäkk P, Kostulas V, Link H (1999) High levels of IL-10 secreting cells are present in blood in cerebrovascular diseases. Eur J Neurol 6:437-442
192. Pepys M (1981) C-reactive protein fifty years on. Lancet 1:653-656
193. Perry JR, Bilbao JM, Gray T (1992) Fatal basilar vasculopathy complicating bacterial meningitis. Stroke 23:1175-1178
194. Picard O, Brunereau L, Pelosse B, Kerob D, Cabane J, Imbert J-C (1997) Cerebral infarction associated with vasculitis due to varicella zoster virus in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Biomed Pharmacother 51:449-454
195. Pinto AN (1996) AIDS and cerebrovascular disease [review]. Stroke 27:538-543
196. Pozzilli C, Lenzi GL, Argentino C, Bozzao L, Rasura M, Giubilei F, Fieschi C (1985a) Peripheral white blood cell count in cerebral ischemic infarction. Acta Neurol Scand 71:396-400
197. Pozzilli C, Lenzi GL, Argentino C, Carolei A, Rasura M, Signore A, Bozzao L, Pozzilli P (1985b) Imaging of leukocytic infiltration in human cerebral infarcts. Stroke 16:251-255
198. Prentice RL, Szatrowski TP, Kato H, Mason MW (1982) Leukocyte counts and cerebrovascular disease. J Chron Dis 35:703-714
199. Price CJ, Menon DK, Balan KK, Barber R, Ballinger J, Peters MA, Warburton EA (2002) Imaging the cellular component of the inflammatory response in acute ischemic stroke [abstract]. Stroke 33:398
200. PROGRESS Collaborative Group (2001) Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischemic attack. Lancet 358:1033-1041
201. Ramadori G, Christ B (1999) Cytokines and the hepatic acute-phase response [review]. Sem Liver Dis 19:141-155
202. Reichhart MD, Bogousslavsky J, Janzer RC (2000) Early lacunar strokes complicating polyarteritis nodosa: Thrombotic microangiopathy. Neurology 54:883-889
203. Reik L (1993) Stroke due to Lyme disease. Neurology 43:2705-2707
204. Reith J, Jørgensen HS, Pedersen PM, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Jeppesen LL, Olsen TS (1996) Body temperature in acute stroke: Relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome. Lancet 347:422-425
205. Relton JK, Rothwell NJ (1992) Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits ischemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in the rat. Brain Res Bull 29:243-246
206. Relton JK, Martin D, Thompson RC, Russell DA (1996) Peripheral administration of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits brain damage after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. Exp Neurol 138:206-213
207. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, Tracy RP, Hennekens CH (1997) Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 336:973-979
208. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Stampfer MJ, Wang F (1998) Prospective study of herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and the risk of future myocardial infarction and stroke. Circulation 98:2796-2799
209. Roden VJ, Cantor HE, O'Connor DM, Schmidt RR, Cherry JD (1975) Acute hemiplegia of childhood associated with Coxsackie A9 viral infection, J Pediatr 86:56-58
210. Roldan CA, Shively BK, Crawford MH (1996) An echocardiographic study of valvular heart disease associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 335:1424-1430
211. Ross R (1999) Atherosclerosis - An inflammatory disease [review]. N Engl J Med 340:115-126
212. Rost NS, Wolf PA, Kase CS, Kelly-Hayes M, Silbershatz H, Massaro JM, D'Agostino RB, Franzblau C, Wilson PWF (2001) Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack: The Framingham study. Stroke 32:2575-2579
213. Rothwell NJ (1999) Cytokines - Killers in the brain? [review]. J Physiol 514:3-17
214. Rothwell PM (2001) The high cost of not funding stroke research: A comparison with heart disease and cancer. Lancet 357:1612-1616
215. Sairanen T, Ristimaki A, Karjalainen-Lindsberg ML, Paetau A, Kaste M, Lindsberg PJ (1998) Cyclooxygenase-2 is induced globally in infarcted human brain. Ann Neurol 43:738-747
216. Sairanen T, Carpén O, Karjalainen-Lindsberg M-L, Paetau A, Turpeinen U, Kaste M, Lindsberg PJ (2001) Evolution of cerebral tumor necrosis factor-α production during human ischemic stroke. Stroke 32:1750-1758
217. Schroeter M, Franke C, Stoll G, Hoehn M (2001) Dynamic changes of magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in relation to inflammation and glial responses after photothrombotic cerebral infarction in the rat brain. Acta Neuropathol 101:114-122
218. Schulz JB, Weller M, Moskowitz MA (1999) Caspases as treatment targets in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases [review]. Ann Neurol 45:421-429
219. Schwab JM, Nguyen TD, Meyermann R, Schluesener HJ (2001) Human focal cerebral infarctions induce differential lesional interleukin-16 (IL-16) expression confined to infiltrating granulocytes, CD8+ T-lymphocytes and activated microglia/macrophages. J Neuroimmunol 114:232-241
220. Sehgal M, Swanson JW, DeRemee RA, Colby TV (1995) Neurologic manifestations of Churg-Strauss syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 70:337-341
221. Selby G, Walker GL (1979) Cerebral arteritis in cat-scratch disease. Neurology 29:1413-1418
222. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Cobbe SM, Bollen EL, Buckley BM, Ford I, Jukema JW, Hyland M, Gaw A, Lagaay AM, Perry IJ, Macfarlane PW, Meinders AE, Sweeney BJ, Packard CJ, Westendorp RG, Twomey C, Stott DJ (1999) The design of a prospective study in the elderly at risk (PROSPER). PROSPER Study Group. Prospective Study of Pravastatin in the Elderly at Risk. Am J Cardiol 84:1192-1197
223. Shohami E, Ginis I, Hallenbeck JM (1999) Dual role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in brain injury [review]. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 10:119-130
224. Shyu K-G, Chang H, Lin C-C (1997) Serum levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin in patients with acute ischemic stroke. J Neurol 244:90-93
225. Sigal LH (1987) The neurologic presentation of vasculitic and rheumatologic syndromes: A review. Medicine 66:157-180
226. Signore A, Procaccini E, Annovazzi A, Chianelli M, van der Laken C, Mire-Sluis A (2000) The developing role of cytokines for imaging inflammation and infection [review]. Cytokine 12:1445-1454
227. Slevin M, Krupinski J, Slowik A, Kumar P, Szczudlik A, Gaffey J (2000) Serial measurement of vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor-β1 in serum of patients with acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 31:1863-1870
228. Smith CJ, Emsley HCA, Drennan RF, Libetta CM, Hopkins SJ, Rothwell NJ, Tyrrell PJ (2002) A Randomised, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Pilot Study to Investigate the Safety of Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist in Patients with Acute Stroke [abstract]. http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/stroke-medicine
229. Sörnäs R, Östlund H, Müller R (1972) Cerebrospinal fluid cytology after stroke. Arch Neurol 26:489-501
230. Spera PA, Ellison JA, Feuerstein GZ, Barone FC (1998) IL-10 reduces rat brain injury following focal stroke. Neurosci Lett 251:189-192
231. Stanimirovic DB, Wong J, Shapiro A, Durkin JP (1997) Increase in surface expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin in human cerebromicrovascular endothelial cells subjected to ischemia-like insults. Acta Neurochir 70:12-16
232. Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable II (STAIR-II) (2001) Recommendations for clinical trial evaluation of acute stroke therapies, Stroke 32:1598-1606
233. Syrjänen J, Valtonen VV, Iivanainen M, Kaste M, Huttunen JK (1988) Preceding infection as an important risk factor for ischemic brain infarction in young and middle aged patients. BMJ 296:1156-1160
234. Syrjänen J, Teppo A-M, Valtonen VV, Iivanainen M, Maury CPJ (1989) Acute phase response in cerebral infarction. J Clin Pathol 42:63-68
235. Tanne D, Triplett DA, Levine SR (1998) Antiphospholipid-protein antibodies and ischemic stroke: Not just cardiolipin anymore. Stroke 29:1755-1758
236. Tarkowski E, Rosengren L, Blomstrand C, Wikkelsö C, Jensen C, Ekholm S, Tarkowski A (1995) Early intrathecal production of interleukin-6 predicts the size of brain lesion in stroke. Stroke 26:1393-1398
237. Tarkowski E, Rosengren L, Blomstrand C, Wikkelsö C, Jensen C, Ekholm S, Tarkowski A (1997) Intrathecal release of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines during stroke. Clin Exp Immunol 110:492-499
238. Tarkowski E, Rosengren L, Blomstrand C, Jensen C, Ekholm S, Tarkowski A (1999) Intrathecal expression of proteins regulating apoptosis in acute stroke. Stroke 30:321-327
239. Tarnacka B, Gromadzka G, Czlonkowska A (2002) Increased circulating immune complexes in acute stroke: The triggering role of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Cytomegalovirus. Stroke 33:936-940
240. Tembl JI, Ferrer JM, Sevilla MT, Lago A, Mayordomo F, Vilchez JJ (1999) Neurologic complications associated with hepatitis C virus infection. Neurology 53:861-864
241. Templeton PA, Dunne MG (1987) Kawasaki syndrome: Cerebral and cardiovascular complications. J Clin Ultrasound 15:483-485
242. Terai K, Matsuo A, McGeer EG, McGeer PL (1996) Enhancement of immunoreactivity for NF-κB in human cerebral infarctions. Brain Res 739:343-349
243. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators (2000) Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 342:145-153
244. Tilg H, Trehu E, Atkins MB, Dinarello CA, Mier JW (1994) Interleukin-6 (IL-6) as an anti-inflammatory cytokine: Induction of circulating IL-1 receptor antagonist and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor p55. Blood 1:113-118
245. Tomimoto H, Akiguchi I, Wakita H, Kinoshita A, Ikemoto A, Nakamura S, Kimura J (1996) Glial expression of cytokines in the brains of cerebrovascular disease patients. Acta Neuropathol 92:281-287
246. Tomimoto H, Akiguchi I, Wakita H, Lin J-X, Budka H (2000) Cyclooxygenase-2 is induced in microglia during chronic cerebral ischemia in humans. Acta Neuropathol 99:26-30
247. Tuhrim S, Rand JH, Wu X-X, Weinberger J, Horowitz DR, Goldman ME, Godbold JH (1999) Elevated anticardiolipin antibody titer is a stroke risk factor in a multiethnic population independent of isotype or degree of positivity. Stroke 30:1561-1565
248. Uldry P-A, Regli F, Bogousslavsky J (1987) Cerebral angiopathy and recurrent strokes following Borrelia burdorferi infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 50:1703-1704
249. Valtonen V, Kuikka A, Syrjänen J (1993) Thrombo-embolic complications in bacteraemic infections. Eur Heart J 14(suppl K):20-23
250. van Exel E, Gussekloo J, de Craen AJM, Bootsma-van der Wiel A, Frölich M, Westendorp RGJ (2002) Inflammation and stroke: The Leiden 85-plus study. Stroke 33:1135-1138
251. Vaughan CJ, Delanty N (1999) Neuroprotective properties of statins in cerebral ischemia and stroke [review]. Stroke 30:1969-1973
252. Vila N, Castillo J, Dávalos A, Chamorro A (2000a) Proinflammatory cytokines and early neurological worsening in ischemic stroke. Stroke 31:2325-2329
253. Vila N, Reverter JC, Yagüe J, Chamorro A (2000b) Interaction between interleukin-6 and the natural anticoagulant system in acute stroke. J Interferon Cytokine Res 20:325-329
254. Virok D, Kis Z, Karai L, Intzedy L, Burian K, Szabo A, Ivanyi B, Gonczol E (2001) Chlamydia pneumoniae in atherosclerotic middle cerebral artery. Stroke 32:1973-1978
255. Visudtibhan A, Visudhipan P, Chiemchanya S (1999) Stroke and seizures as the presenting signs of pediatric HIV infection. Pediatr Neurol 20:53-56
256. Wang P-Y, Kao C-H, Mui M-Y, Wang S-J (1993) Leukocyte infiltration in acute hemispheric stroke. Stroke 24:236-240
257. Wang X, Yue T-L, Barone FC, White RF, Gagnon RC, Feuerstein GZ (1994) Concomitant cortical expression of TNF-α and IL-1β mRNAs follows early response gene expression in transient focal ischemia. Mol Chem Neuropathol 23:103-114
258. Wang X, Yue T-L, Young PR, Barone FC, Feuerstein GZ (1995) Expression of interleukin-6, c-fos, and zif268 mRNAs in rat ischemic cortex. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:166-171
259. Welch KMA (2002) Stroke prevention by aggressive reduction in cholesterol levels (SPARCL) [abstract]. Stroke 33:653-654
260. Weststrate W, Hijdra A, de Gans J (1996) Brain infarcts in adults with bacterial meningitis. Lancet 347:399
261. Whincup PH, Mendall MA, Perry IJ, Strachan DP, Walker M (1996) Prospective relations between Helicobacter pylori infection, coronary heart disease, and stroke in middle-aged men. Heart 75:568-572
262. Wilhelmsen L, Svärdsudd K, Korsan-Bengtsen K, Larsson B, Welin L, Tibblin G (1984) Fibrinogen as a risk factor for stroke and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 311:501-505
263. Wimmer MLJ, Sandmann-Strupp R, Saikku P, Haberl RL (1996) Association of chlamydial infection with cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 27:2207-2210
264. Wood PL (1995) Microglia as a unique cellular target in the treatment of stroke: Potential neurotoxic mediators produced by activated microglia. Neurol Res 17:242-248
265. Woodhouse PR, Khaw KT, Plummer M, Foley A, Meade TW (1994) Seasonal variations of plasma fibrinogen and factor VII activity in the elderly: Winter infections and death from cardiovascular disease. Lancet 343:435-439
266. Wu T, Trevisan M, Genco RJ, Dorn JP, Falkner KL, Sempos CT (2000) Periodontal disease and risk of cerebrovascular disease: The first national health and nutrition examination survey and its follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 160:2749-2755
267. Yamasaki Y, Matsuura N, Shozuhara H, Onodera H, Itoyama Y, Kogure K (1995) Interleukin-1 as a pathogenetic mediator of ischemic brain damage in rats. Stroke 26:676-681
268. Yamashita K, Ouchi K, Shirai M, Gondo T, Nakazawa T, Ito H (1998) Distribution of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in the atherosclerotic carotid artery. Stroke 29:773-778
269. Zaremba J, Skrobanski P, Losy J (2001) Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is increased in the cerebrospinal fluid and serum of ischemic stroke patients and correlates with the volume of evolving brain infarct. Biomed Pharmacother 55:258-263
270. Zhang Z, Chopp M, Powers C (1997) Temporal profile of microglial response following transient (2h) middle cerebral artery occlusion. Brain Res 744:189-198