A review of molecular pathological markers in vulvar carcinoma: Lack of application in clinical practice

Journal of Clinical Pathology

Volumn 62, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 212-218

  Knopp, S ^a,b   Trope C ^a,b   Nesland, J M ^a,b   Holm, R ^a,c  

^a OSLO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^c TRONDHEIM UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CASPASE 3; CD44V ANTIGEN; CD44V6 ANTIGEN; CYCLIN A; CYCLIN D1; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; HERMES ANTIGEN; MACROPHAGE ELASTASE; NUCLEOSIDE DIPHOSPHATE KINASE A; PROTEIN BCL 2; PROTEIN P14; PROTEIN P16; PROTEIN P21; PROTEIN P27; PROTEIN P53; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR ALPHA; TRASTUZUMAB; TUMOR MARKER; VASCULOTROPIN;

ANGIOGENESIS; ARTICLE; CANCER CELL; CELL CYCLE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; VULVA CARCINOMA; WART VIRUS;

ANGIOGENESIS INDUCING AGENTS; ANTIGENS, CD44; CARCINOMA, SQUAMOUS CELL; CELL CYCLE; FEMALE; HUMANS; PAPILLOMAVIRIDAE; PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS; PROGNOSIS; RECEPTOR, EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL; VULVAR NEOPLASMS;

EID: 61849126321     PISSN: 00219746     EISSN: 14724146     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/jcp.2008.057240     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Crum CP. Carcinoma of the vulva: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:448-54.
2. Coulter J, Gleeson N. Local and regional recurrence of vulval cancer: management dilemmas. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2003;17:663-81.
3. Benedet JL, Bender H, Jones H III, et al. FIGO staging classifications and clinical practice guidelines in the management of gynecologic cancers. FIGO Committee on Gynecologic Oncology. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2000;70:209-62.
4. Jones RW, Rowan DM. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia III: a clinical study of the outcome in 113 cases with relation to the later development of invasive vulvar carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:741-5.
5. Iversen T, Tretli S. Intraepithelial and invasive squamous cell neoplasia of the vulva: trends in incidence, recurrence, and survival rate in Norway. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:969-72.
6. Sturgeon SR, Brinton LA, Devesa SS, et al. In situ and invasive vulvar cancer incidence trends (1973 to 1987). Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1482-5.
7. Hording U, Junge J, Daugaard S, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma and papillomaviruses: indications for two different etiologies. Gynecol Oncol 1994;52:241-6.
8. Keys H. Gynecologic Oncology Group randomized trials of combined technique therapy for vulvar cancer. Cancer 1993;71:1691-6.
9. Moore DH, Thomas GM, Montana GS, et al. Preoperative chemoradiation for advanced vulvar cancer: a phase II study of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1998;42:79-85.
10. Ghurani GB, Penalver MA. An update on vulvar cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:294-9.
11. Scheistroen M, Nesland JM, Trope C. Have patients with early squamous carcinoma of the vulva been overtreated in the past? The Norwegian experience 1977-1991. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 2002;23:93-103.
12. Oonk MH, Hollema H, de Hullu JA, et al. Prediction of lymph node metastases in vulvar cancer: a review. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2006;16:963-71.
13. World Health Organization. Pathology and genetics of tumors of the breast and female genital organs. Lyon: IARC Press, 2003:316-21.
14. Toki T, Kurman RJ, Park JS, et al. Probable nonpapillomavirus etiology of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva in older women: a clinicopathologic study using in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1991;10:107-25.
15. Trimble CL, Hildesheim A, Brinton LA, et al. Heterogeneous etiology of squamous carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:59-64.
16. Pinto AP, Signorello LB, Crum CP, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva in Brazil: prognostic importance of host and viral variables. Gynecol Oncol 1999;74:61-7.
17. Kurman RJ, Toki T, Schiffman MH. Basaloid and warty carcinomas of the vulva. Distinctive types of squamous cell carcinoma frequently associated with human papillomaviruses. Am J Surg Pathol 1993;17:133-45.
18. Sideri M, Jones RW, Wilkinson EJ, et al. Squamous vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: 2004 modified terminology, ISSVD Vulvar Oncology Subcommittee. J Reprod Med 2005;50:807-10.
19. Preti M, van Seters M, Sideri M, et al. Squamous vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2005;48:845-61.
20. van der Avoort I, Shirango H, Hoevenaars BM, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma is a multifactorial disease following two separate and independent pathways. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2006;25:22-9.
21. Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: historical aspects and current status. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2001;20:16-30.
22. Yang B, Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia of the simplex (differentiated) type: a clinicopathologic study including analysis of HPV and p53 expression. Am J Surg Pathol 2000;24:429-41.
23. Lee YY, Wilczynski SP, Chumakov A, et al. Carcinoma of the vulva: HPV and p53 mutations. Oncogene 1994;9:1655-9.
24. Lerma E, Matias-Guiu X, Lee SJ, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: study of ploidy, HPV, p53, and pRb. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1999;18:191-7.
25. Iwasawa A, Nieminen P, Lehtinen M, et al. Human papillomavirus in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva by polymerase chain reaction. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:81-4.
26. Pinto AP, Schlecht NF, Pintos J, et al. Prognostic significance of lymph node variables and human papillomavirus DNA in invasive vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 2004;92:856-65.
27. Brandenberger AW, Rudlinger R, Hanggi W, et al. Detection of human papillomavirus in vulvar carcinoma. A study by in situ hybridisation. Arch Gynecol Obstet 1992;252:31-5.
28. Rouzier R, Morice P, Haie-Meder C, et al. Prognostic significance of epithelial disorders adjacent to invasive vulvar carcinomas. Gynecol Oncol 2001;81:414-9.
29. McMurray HR, Nguyen D, Westbrook TF, et al. Biology of human papillomaviruses. Int J Exp Pathol 2001;82:15-33.
30. Monk BJ, Burger RA, Lin F, et al. Prognostic significance of human papillomavirus DNA in vulvar carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:709-15.
31. Ansink AC, Krul MR, De Weger RA, et al. Human papillomavirus, lichen sclerosus, and squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: detection and prognostic significance. Gynecol Oncol 1994;52:180- 4.
32. Bloss JD, Liao SY, Wilczynski SP, et al. Clinical and histologic features of vulvar carcinomas analyzed for human papillomavirus status: evidence that squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva has more than one etiology. Hum Pathol 1991;22:711-8.
33. Kagie MJ, Kenter GG, Tollenaar RA, et al. p53 protein overexpression is common and independent of human papillomavirus infection in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Cancer 1997;80:1228-33.
34. Knopp S, Nesland JM, Trope C, et al. p14ARF, a prognostic predictor in HPV-negative vulvar carcinoma. Am J Clin Pathol 2006;126:266-76.
35. Biedermann K, Dandachi N, Trattner M, et al. Comparison of real-time PCR signal-amplified in situ hybridization and conventional PCR for detection and quantification of human papillomavirus in archival cervical cancer tissue. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:3758-65.
36. Santos M, Landolfi S, Olivella A, et al. p16 overexpression identifies HPV-positive vulvar squamous cell carcinomas. Am J Surg Pathol 2006;30:1347-56.
37. O'Neill CJ, McCluggage WG. p16 expression in the female genital tract and its value in diagnosis. Adv Anat Pathol 2006;13:8-15.
38. Holm R, Tanum G, Karlsen F, et al. Prevalence and physical state of human papillomavirus DNA in anal carcinomas. Mod Pathol 1994;7:449-53.
39. Cullen AP, Reid R, Campion M, et al. Analysis of the physical state of different human papillomavirus DNAs in intraepithelial and invasive cervical neoplasm. J Virol 1991;65:606-12.
40. Daniel B, Mukherjee G, Seshadri L, et al. Changes in the physical state and expression of human papillomavirus type 16 in the progression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia lesions analysed by PCR. J Gen Virol 1995;76:2589-93.
41. Matsukura T, Koi S, Sugase M. Both episomal and integrated forms of human papillomavirus type 16 are involved in invasive cervical cancers. Virology 1989;172:63-72.
42. Fukushima M, Yamakawa Y, Shimano S, et al. The physical state of human papillomavirus 16 DNA in cervical carcinoma and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer 1990;66:2155-61.
43. Harper DM, Franco EL, Wheeler CM, et al. Sustained efficacy up to 4.5 years of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine against human papillomavirus types 16 and 18: follow-up from a randomised control trial. Lancet 2006;367:1247-55.
44. Hampl M, Sarajuuri H, Wentzensen N, et al. Effect of human papillomavirus vaccines on vulvar, vaginal, and anal intraepithelial lesions and vulvar cancer. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:1361-8.
45. Weinberg RA. The retinoblastoma protein and cell cycle control. Cell 1995;81:323-30.
46. Sherr CJ, Roberts JM. CDK inhibitors: positive and negative regulators of G1-phase progression. Genes Dev 1999;13:1501-12.
47. Zamparelli A, Masciullo V, Bovicelli A, et al. Expression of cell-cycle-associated proteins pRB2/p130 and p27kip in vulvar squamous cell carcinomas. Hum Pathol 2001;32:4-9.
48. Gasco M, Sullivan A, Repellin C, et al. Coincident inactivation of 14-3-3sigma and p16INK4a is an early event in vulval squamous neoplasia. Oncogene 2002;21:1876-81.
49. O'Nions J, Brooks LA, Sullivan A, et al. p73 is over-expressed in vulval cancer principally as the Delta 2 isoform. Br J Cancer 2001;85:1551-6.
50. Rolfe KJ, Crow JC, Benjamin E, et al. Cyclin D1 and retinoblastoma protein in vulvar cancer and adjacent lesions. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2001;11:381-6.
51. Lerma E, Esteller M, Herman JG, et al. Alterations of the p16/Rb/cyclin-D1 pathway in vulvar carcinoma, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, and lichen sclerosus. Hum Pathol 2002;33:1120-5.
52. Knopp S, Bjorge T, Nesland JM, et al. Cyclins D1, D3, E, and A in vulvar carcinoma patients. Gynecol Oncol 2005;97:733-9.
53. Chan MK, Cheung TH, Chung TK, et al. Expression of p16INK4 and retinoblastoma protein Rb in vulvar lesions of Chinese women. Gynecol Oncol 1998;68:156-61.
54. Knopp S, Bjorge T, Nesland JM, et al. p16INK4a and p21Waf1/Cip1 expression correlates with clinical outcome in vulvar carcinomas. Gynecol Oncol 2004;95:37-45.
55. Tringler B, Grimm C, Dudek G, et al. p16INK4a expression in invasive vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 2007;15:279-83.
56. Pomerantz J, Schreiber-Agus N, Liegeois NJ, et al. The Ink4a tumor suppressor gene product, p19Arf, interacts with MDM2 and neutralizes MDM2's inhibition of p53. Cell 1998;92:713-23.
57. Stott FJ, Bates S, James MC, et al. The alternative product from the human CDKN2A locus, p14(ARF), participates in a regulatory feedback loop with p53 and MDM2. EMBO J 1998;17:5001-14.
58. Zhang Y, Xiong Y, Yarbrough WG. ARF promotes MDM2 degradation and stabilizes p53: ARF-INK4a locus deletion impairs both the Rb and p53 tumor suppression pathways. Cell 1998;92:725-34.
59. Sherr CJ. The INK4a/ARF network in tumour suppression. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2001;2:731-7.
60. Bates S, Phillips AC, Clark PA, et al. p14ARF links the tumour suppressors RB and p53. Nature 1998;395:124-5.
61. Diller L, Kassel J, Nelson CE, et al. p53 functions as a cell cycle control protein in osteosarcomas. Mol Cell Biol 1990;10:5772-81.
62. Aloni-Grinstein R, Schwartz D, Rotter V. Accumulation of wild-type p53 protein upon gamma-irradiation induces a G2 arrest-dependent immunoglobulin kappa light chain gene expression. EMBO J 1995;14:1392-401.
63. Lee S, Elenbaas B, Levine A, et al. p53 and its 14 kDa C-terminal domain recognize primary DNA damage in the form of insertion/deletion mismatches. Cell 1995;81:1013-20.
64. Wang Y, Farmer G, Soussi T, et al. Xenopus laevis p53 protein: sequence-specific DNA binding, transcriptional regulation and oligomerization are evolutionarily conserved. Oncogene 1995;10:779-84.
65. Shaulsky G, Goldfinger N, Peled A, et al. Involvement of wild-type p53 in pre-B-cell differentiation in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991;88:8982-6.
66. Lowe SW, Ruley HE, Jacks T, et al. p53-dependent apoptosis modulates the cytotoxicity of anticancer agents. Cell 1993;74:957-67.
67. Milde-Langosch K, Albrecht K, Joram S, et al. Presence and persistence of HPV infection and p53 mutation in cancer of the cervix uteri and the vulva. Int J Cancer 1995;63:639-45.
68. Scheistroen M, Trope C, Pettersen EO, et al. p53 protein expression in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Cancer 1999;85:1133-8.
69. McConnell DT, Miller ID, Parkin DE, et al. p53 protein expression in a population- based series of primary vulval squamous cell carcinoma and immediate adjacent field change. Gynecol Oncol 1997;67:248-54.
70. Kagie MJ, Kenter GG, Tollenaar RA, et al. p53 protein overexpression, a frequent observation in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva and in various synchronous vulvar epithelia, has no value as a prognostic parameter. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1997;16:124-30.
71. Salmaso R, Zen T, Zannol M, et al. Prognostic value of protein p53 and ki-67 in invasive vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 2000;21:479-83.
72. Brown DC, Gatter KC. Monoclonal antibody Ki-67: its use in histopathology. Histopathology 1990;17:489-503.
73. Endl E, Gerdes J. The Ki-67 protein: fascinating forms and an unknown function. Exp Cell Res 2000;257:231-7.
74. Hoevenaars BM, van dA, I, de Wilde PC, et al. A panel of p16(INK4A), MIB1 and p53 proteins can distinguish between the 2 pathways leading to vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2008;123:2767-73.
75. van der Avoort I, van der Laak JA, Paffen A, et al. MIB1 expression in basal cell layer: a diagnostic tool to identify premalignancies of the vulva. Mod Pathol 2007;20:770-8.
76. Marchetti M, Salmaso R, Polonio S, et al. Ki-67 expression in vulvar carcinoma. Preliminary results. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 1996;17:361-4.
77. Modesitt SC, Groben PA, Walton LA, et al. Expression of Ki-67 in vulvar carcinoma and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia III: correlation with clinical prognostic factors. Gynecol Oncol 2000;76:51-5.
78. Hantschmann P, Lampe B, Beysiegel S, et al. Tumor proliferation in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2000;19:361-8.
79. Emanuels AG, Burger MP, Hollema H, et al. Quantitation of proliferation-associated markers Ag-NOR and Ki-67 does not contribute to the prediction of lymph node metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Hum Pathol 1996;27:807-11.
80. Hendricks JB, Wilkinson EJ, Kubilis P, et al. Ki-67 expression in vulvar carcinoma. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1994;13:205- 10.
81. Underhill C. CD44: the hyaluronan receptor. J Cell Sci 1992;103:293-8.
82. Screaton GR, Bell MV, Jackson DG, et al. Genomic structure of DNA encoding the lymphocyte homing receptor CD44 reveals at least 12 alternatively spliced exons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992;89:12160-4.
83. Rodriguez-Rodriguez L, Sancho-Torres I, Miller WL, et al. Prognostic value of CD44 expression in invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1999;75:34-40.
84. Rodriguez-Rodriguez L, Sancho-Torres I, Gibbon DG, et al. CD44-9v and CD44-10v are potential molecular markers for squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2000;7:70-5.
85. Hefler LA, Concin N, MinChem D, et al. The prognostic value of immunohistochemically detected CD44v3 and CD44v6 expression in patients with surgically staged vulvar carcinoma: a multicenter study. Cancer 2002;94:125-30.
86. Tempfer C, Gitsch G, Hanzal E, et al. Expression of the adhesion molecule CD44v3 is a prognostic factor in vulvar carcinoma. Anticancer Res 1996;16:2029-31.
87. Hicklin DJ, Ellis LM. Role of the vascular endothelial growth factor pathway in tumor growth and angiogenesis. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:1011-27.
88. Takahashi Y, Kitadai Y, Bucana CD, et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor, KDR, correlates with vascularity, metastasis, and proliferation of human colon cancer. Cancer Res 1995;55:3964-8.
89. Maeda K, Chung YS, Ogawa Y, et al. Prognostic value of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in gastric carcinoma. Cancer 1996;77:858-63.
90. Manders P, Beex LV, Tjan-Heijnen VC, et al. The prognostic value of vascular endothelial growth factor in 574 node-negative breast cancer patients who did not receive adjuvant systemic therapy. Br J Cancer 2002;87:772-8.
91. Doldi N, Origoni M, Bassan M, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor. Expression in human vulvar neoplastic and nonneoplastic tissues. J Reprod Med 1996;41:844-8.
92. Bancher-Todesca D, Obermair A, Bilgi S, et al. Angiogenesis in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 1997;64:496- 500.
93. MacLean AB, Reid WM, Rolfe KJ, et al. Role of angiogenesis in benign, premalignant and malignant vulvar lesions. J Reprod Med 2000;45:609-12.
94. Obermair A, Kohlberger P, Bancher-Todesca D, et al. Influence of microvessel density and vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor expression on prognosis in vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1996;63:204-9.
95. Schreiber AB, Winkler ME, Derynck R. Transforming growth factor-alpha: a more potent angiogenic mediator than epidermal growth factor. Science 1986;232:1250-3.
96. Wu X, Xin Y, Yao J, et al. Expression of epithelial growth factor receptor and its two ligands, transforming growth factor-alpha and epithelial growth factor, in normal and neoplastic squamous cells in the vulva: an immunohistochemical study. Mad Electron Microsc 2001;34:179-84.
97. Hantschmann P, Jeschke U, Friese K. TGF-alpha, c-erbB-2 expression and neoangiogenesis in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Anticancer Res 2005;25:1731-7.
98. Xynos FP, Klos DJ, Hamilton PD, et al. Expression of transforming growth factor alpha mRNA in benign and malignant tissues derived from gynecologic patients with various proliferative conditions. Anticancer Res 1992;12:1115-20.
99. Hynes NE, Horsch K, Olayioye MA, et al. The ErbB receptor tyrosine family as signal integrators. Endocr Relat Cancer 2001;8:151-9.
100. Gordinier ME, Steinhoff MM, Hogan JW, et al. S-Phase fraction, p53, and HER-2/neu status as predictors of nodal metastasis in early vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1997;67:200-2.
101. Johnson GA, Mannel R, Khalifa M, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor in vulvar malignancies and its relationship to metastasis and patient survival. Gynecol Oncol 1997;65:425-9.
102. Robert N, Leyland-Jones B, Asmar L, et al. Randomized phase III study of tRestuzumab, paclitaxel, and carboplatin compared with tRestuzumab and paclitaxel in women with HER-2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:2786-92.
103. Vokes EE, Chu E. Anti-EGFR therapies: clinical experience in colorectal, lung, and head and neck cancers. Oncology (Williston Park) 2006;20:15-25.
104. Gao XP, Liu F. New agents in development for breast cancer. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2007;19:68-74.
105. Richard SD, Krivak TC, Beriwal S, et al. Recurrent metastatic vulvar carcinoma treated with cisplatin plus cetuximab. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2008;18:1132-5.
106. Kerkela E, la-aho R, Klemi P, et al. Metalloelastase (MMP-12) expression by tumour cells in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva correlates with invasiveness, while that by macrophages predicts better outcome. J Pathol 2002;198:258-69.
107. Fons G, Burger MP, ten Kate FJ, et al. Identification of potential prognostic markers for vulvar cancer using immunohistochemical staining of tissue microarrays. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2007;26:188- 93.
108. Hantschmann P, Kurzl R. Regulation of apoptosis in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. J Reprod Med 2000;45:633-42.
109. Hantschmann P, Beysiegel S, Assemi C, et al. Immunohistologic detection of nm23-H1 protein in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. J Reprod Med 2004;49:787-95.