The lithospheric architecture of Africa: Seismic tomography, mantle petrology, and tectonic evolution

Geosphere

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 23-50

  Begg, G C ^a,b   Griffin, W L ^b   Natapov, L M ^b   O'Reilly, Suzanne Y ^b   Grand, S P ^c   O'Neill, C J ^b   Hronsky, J M A ^d   Djomani, Y Poudjom ^b,e   Swain, C J ^f   Deen, T ^b,g   Bowden, P ^h  

^a Minerals Targeting International   (Australia)

^b MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^d BHP BILLITON   (Australia)

^e Geological Survey of New South Wales   (Australia)

^f CURTIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^g BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY   (United Kingdom)

^h UNIVERSITÉ JEAN MONNET   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONTINENTAL BREAKUP; EXTENSIONAL TECTONICS; LITHOSPHERIC STRUCTURE; MANTLE STRUCTURE; MODELING; OCEAN BASIN; PETROLOGY; RIFTING; S-WAVE; SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY; TECTONIC EVOLUTION;

AFRICA; ATLANTIC OCEAN; EAST AFRICAN RIFT; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 61349120205     PISSN: 1553-040     EISSN: 1553040X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1130/GES00179.1     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. Abdelsalam, M.G., Liègeois, J.-P., and Stern, R.J., 2002, The Saharan Metacraton: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 119-136, doi: 10.1016/S08995362(02)00013-1.
2. Afonso, J.C., Fernandez, M., Ranalli, G., Griffi n, W.L., and Connolly, J.A.D., 2008, Integrated geophysical petrological modeling of the lithosphere and sublithospheric upper mantle: Methodology and applications: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 9, doi: 10.1029/ 2007GC001834.
3. Alard, O., Luguet, A., Pearson, N.J., Griffi n, W.L., Lorand, J.-P., Gannoun, A., Burton, K.W., and O'Reilly, S.Y., 2005, In-situ Os isotopes in abyssal peridotites: Bridging the "isotopic gap" between MORB and their source mantle: Nature, v. 436, p. 1005-1008, doi: 10.1038/ nature03902.
4. Anhaeusser, C.R., 1990, Precambrian crust evolution and metallogeny of Southern Africa, in Naqvi, S.M., ed., Precambrian continental crust and its economic resources: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 123-156.
5. Appel, P., Schenk, V., and Schumann, A., 2005, P-T path and metamorphic ages of pelitic schists at Murchison Falls, NW Uganda: Evidence for a Pan-African tectonometamorphic event in the Congo Craton: European Journal of Mineralogy, v. 17, p. 655-664, doi: 10.1127/0935-1221/2005/ 0017-0655.
6. Armstrong, R.L., 1981, Radiogenic isotopes: The case for crustal recycling on a near steady-state no continental growth Earth: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, v. A301, p. 443-472, doi: 10.1098/rsta.1981.0122.
7. Armstrong, R.L., 1991, The persistent myth of crustal growth: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 38, p. 613-630, doi: 10.1080/ 08120099108727995.
8. Armstrong, R.A., Robb, L.J., Master, S., Kruger, F.J., and Mumba, P.A.C.C., 1999, New U-Pb age constraints on the Katangan Sequence, Central African Copperbelt, J. Afr. Earth Sci. Special Abstracts Issue, GSA 11: Earth Resources for Africa, v. 28, p. 6-7.
9. Attoh, K., and Ekwueme, B.N., 1997, The West African shields, in de Wit, M., and Ashwal, L.D., eds., Greenstone belts: Oxford, Clarendon Press, p. 515-527.
10. Ballentine, C.J., Lee, D-Ch., and Halliday, A.N., 1997, Hafnium isotopic studies of the Cameroon line and new HIMU paradoxes: Chemical Geology, v. 139, p. 111-124.
11. Barr, M.W.C., Downing, K.N., Harding, A.E., and Loughlin, W.P., 1984, Regional correlation near the junction of the Zambezi and Mozambique belts, east-central Africa: Maputo, Mozambique, Open-File Report, Hunting Geology and Geophysics, Instituto Nacional de Geologia.
12. Becker, T., and Brandenburg, A., 2002, The petrogenesis of the Alberta Complex within the Rehoboth basement inlier of Namibia: South African Journal of Geology, v. 105, p. 147-162, doi: 10.2113/105.2.147.
13. Becker, T., and Ledru, P., Garoeb, H., and Milesi, J.P., 2004, The Mesoproterozoic event within the Rehoboth Basement Inlier of Namibia: Review and new aspects of metamorphism, structure, and stratigraphy: Orleans, Abstracts 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 70.
14. Bell, D.R., Schmitz, M.D., and Janney, P.E., 2004, Mesozoic thermal evolution of the southern African lithosphere: Lithos, v. 71, p. 273-287, doi: 10.1016/S0024-4937(03)00117-8.
15. Bell, D.R., Gregoire, M., Grove, T.L., Chatterjee, N., Carlson, R.W., and Buseck, P.R., 2005, Silica and volatile-element metasomatism of Archean mantle: A xenolithscale example from the Kaapvaal Craton: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 150, p. 251-267, doi: 10.1007/s00410-005-0673-8.
16. Beyer, E.E., Griffi n, W.L., and O'Reilly, S.Y., 2006, Transformation of Archean lithospheric mantle by refertilization: Evidence from exposed peridotites in the Western Gneiss Region, Norway: Journal of Petrology, v. 47, p. 1611-1636, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egl022.
17. Black, R., Latouche, L., Liègeois, J.P., Caby, R., and Bertrand, J.M., 1994, Pan-African displaced terranes in the Tuareg shield (Central Sahara): Geology, v. 22, p. 641-644, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(1994)022<0641:PADTIT>2.3.CO;2.
18. Blenkinsop, T., Martin, A., Jelsma, H.A., and Vinyu, M.L., 1997, Zimbabwe Craton, in de Wit, M., and Ashwal, L.D., eds., Greenstone belts: London, Clarendon Press, p. 567-580.
19. Boher, M., Abouchami, C.J., Michard, A., Albarede, F., and Arndt, N.T., 1992, Crustal growth in West Africa at 2.1 Ga: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 345-369, doi: 10.1029/91JB01640.
20. Bonadiman, C., Coltorti, M., Siena, F., O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffi n, W.L., and Pearson, N.J., 2006, Archean to Proterozoic depletion in Cape Verde lithospheric mantle: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 70, supplement 1, p. A58, doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.221.
21. Borg, G., and Shackelton, R.M., 1997, The Tanzania and NEZaire cratons, in de Wit, M., and Ashwal, L.D., eds., Greenstone belts: London, Clarendon Press, p. 608-619.
22. Boven, A., Theunissen, K., Sklyariv, E., Klerkx, J., Melnikov, A., Mruma, A., and Punzalan, L., 1999, Timing of exhumation of a high-pressure mafic granulite terrane of the Paleoproterozoic Ubende belt (West Tanzania): Precambrian Research, v. 93, p. 119-137, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(98)00101-6.
23. Brandl, G., and de Wit, M.J., 1997, The Kaapvaal Craton, in de Wit, M., and Ashwal, L.D., eds., Greenstone belts: London, Clarendon Press, p. 581-607.
24. Bruguier, O., Dada, S., and Lancelot, J.R., 1994, Early Archean component (>3.5 Ga) within 3.05 Ga orthogneiss from northern Nigeria: U-Pb zircon evidence: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 125, p. 89-103, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(94)90208-9.
25. Bulambo, M., De Waele, B., Kampunzu, A.B., and Tembo, F., 2004, SHRIMP U-Pb geochronology of the Choma-Kalomo block (Zambia) and geological implications: Orleans, Abstracts 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 96.
26. Burke, K., Ashwal, L.D., and Webb, S.J., 2003, A new way to map old sutures using deformed alkaline rocks and carbonatites: Geology, v. 31, p. 391-394, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0391:NWTMOS>2.0.CO;2.
27. Caby, R., 2003, Terrane assembly and geodynamic evolution of central-western Hoggar: A synthesis: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 37, p. 133-159, doi: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2003.05.003.
28. Cahen, L., Snelling, N.J., Delhail, J., and Vail, J.R., 1984, The geochronology and evolution of Africa: London, Clarendon Press, 512 p.
29. Carlson, R.W., Pearson, D.G., Boyd, F.R., Shirey, S.B., Irvine, G., Menzies, A.H., and Gurney, J.J., 1999, Re-Os systematics of lithospheric peridotites: Implications for lithosphere formation and preservation: Cape Town, Proceedings 7th International Kimberlite Conference, Red Roof Design, p. 99-108.
30. Carvalho, H. De., Tassinari, C., Alves, P.H., Guimaraes, F., and Simöes, M.C., 2000, Geochronological review of the Precambrian in western Angola: Links with Brazil: J. African Earth Sci., v. 31, p. 383 402.
31. Cawood, P.A., and Buchan, C., 2007, Linking accretionary orogenesis with supercontinent assembly: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 82, p. 217-256, doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.03.003.
32. Chesley, J.T., Rudnick, R.L., and Lee, C.T., 1999, Re-Os systematics of mantle xenoliths from the East African Rift: Age, structure, and history of the Tanzanian craton: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 63, p. 1203-1217, doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00004-6.
33. Chevrot, S., and Zhao, L., 2007, Multiscale finite-frequency Raleigh wave tomography of the Kaapvaal craton: Geophysical Journal International, v. 169, p. 201-215, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03289.x.
34. Coltorti, M., Bonadiman, C., O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L., and Pearson, N., 2008, Heterogeneity in the oceanic lithosphere as evidenced by mantle xenoliths from Sal Island (Cape Verde Archipelago): Abstract, 33rd International Geological Congress, session EIL-03.
35. Condie, K.C., 1998, Episodic continental growth and supercontinents: A mantle avalanche connection?: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 163, p. 97-108.
36. Condie, K.C., 2000, Episodic continental growth models: Afterthoughts and extensions: Tectonophysics, v. 322, p. 153-162, doi: 10.1016/ S0040-1951(00)00061-5.
37. Cornell, D.H., Armstrong, R.A., and Walraven, F., 1998, Geochronology of the Proterozoic Hartley Basalt Formation, South Africa: Constraints on the Kheis tectogenesis and the Kaapvaal Craton's earliest Wilson cycle: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 26, p. 5-27, doi: 10.1016/ S0899-5362(97)00133-4.
38. Cutten, H., Fernandez-Alonso, M., de Waele, B., and Tack, L., 2004, Age constraints for basin evolution and sedimentation in the "Northeastern Kibaran Belt": Orleans, Abstracts, 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 123.
39. Dallmeyer, R.D., 1989, Contrasting accreted terranes in the southern Appalachian Orogen, basement beneath the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains and West African Orogens: Precambrian Research, v. 42, p. 387-409, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(89)90021-1.
40. Dalziel, I.W., Mosher, S., and Gahagan, L.M., 2000, Laurentia-Kalahari collision and the assembly of Rodinia: The Journal of Geology, v. 108, p. 499-513, doi: 10.1086/314418.
41. Danchin, R.V., 1979, Mineral and bulk chemistry of garnet lherzolite and garnet harzburgite xenoliths from the Premier mine, South Africa, in Boyd, F.R., and Meyer, H.O.A., eds., The mantle sample: Inclusions in kimberlites and other volcanics: Washington, D.C, American Geophysical Union, p. 104-126.
42. Dean, S.M., Minshull, T.A., Whitmarsh, R.B., and Louden, K.E., 2000, Deep structure of the ocean-continent transition in the southern Iberia Abyssal Plain from seismic refraction profiles: The IAM-9 transect at 40°20′N: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 105, B3, p. 5859-5885, doi: 10.1029/1999JB900301.
43. Debayle, E., and Kennett, B., 2000, Anisotropy in the Australasian upper mantle from Love and Rayleigh waveform inversion: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 184, p. 339-351, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00314-9.
44. De Carvalho, H., Tassinari, C., Alves, P.H., Guimaraes, F., and Simöes, M.C., 2000, Geochronological review of the Precambrian in western Angola: Links with Brazil: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 31, p. 383-402, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(00)00095-6.
45. Deen, T., Griffi n, W.L., Begg, G., O'Reilly, S.Y., and Natapov, L.M., 2006, Thermal and compositional structure of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle: Derivation from shear-wave seismic tomography: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, doi: 10.1029/2005GC001164.
46. De Waele, B., 2005, The Proterozoic geological history of Irumide belt, Zambia [Ph.D. thesis]: Perth, Australia, Curtin University of Technology, 358 p.
47. De Waele, B., and Fitzsimons, I.C.W., 2004, The age and detrital fingerprint of the Muva Supergroup of Zambia: Molassic deposition to the southwest of the Ubendian Belt: Geoscience Africa, Abstracts, p. 162-163.
48. De Waele, B., and Mapani, B., 2002, Geology and correlation of the central Irumide belt: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 35, p. 385-397, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(02)00149-5.
49. De Waele, B., Wingate, M.T.D., Mapani, B.S.E., and Fitzsimons, I.C.W., 2003, Untying the Kibaran knot: A reassessment of Mesoproterozoic correlations in southern Africa based on SHRIMP U-Pb data from the Irumide belt: Geology, v. 31, p. 509-512, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(2003)031<0509:UTKKAR>2.0.CO;2.
50. De Wit, M.J., 1998, On Archean granites, greenstones, cratons and tectonics: Does the evidence demand a verdict?: Precambrian Research, v. 91, p. 181-224, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(98)00043-6.
51. Dirks, P.H.G.M., and Jelsma, H.A., 2002, Crust-mantle decoupling and the growth of the Archaean Zimbabwe craton: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 157-166, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(02)00015-5.
52. Duchesne, J.-C., Liègeois, J.-P., Deblond, A., and Tack, L., 2004, Petrogenesis of the Kabanda-Musongati layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions in Burundi (Kibaran Belt): Geochemical Sr-Nd isotopic constraints and Cr-Ni behavior: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 39, p. 133-145, doi: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2004.07.055.
53. Ebinger, C.J., and Sleep, N.H., 1998, Cenozoic magmatism throughout east Africa resulting from impact of a single plume: Nature, v. 395, p. 788-791, doi: 10.1038/27417.
54. Eglington, B.M., 2006, Evolution of the Namaqua-Natal Belt, southern Africa - A geochronological and isotope geochemical review: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 46, p. 93-111, doi: 10.1016/ j.jafrearsci.2006.01.014.
55. Faure, S., 2006, World kimberlites database, Version 2006-2: Consortium de Recherche en Exploration Minérale CONSOREM, (www.consorem.ca), Université du Québec à Montréal.
56. Ferré, E., Déléri, J., Bouchez, J.-L., Lar, A.U., and Peucat, J.-J., 1996, The Pan-African reactivation of Eburnean and Archean provinces in Nigeria: Structural and isotopic data: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 153, p. 719-728, doi: 10.1144/ gsjgs.153.5.0719.
57. Ferré, E., Gleizes, G., and Caby, R., 2002, Obliquely convergent tectonics and granite emplacement in the Trans-Saharan belt in Eastern Nigeria: A synthesis: Precambrian Research, v. 114, p. 199-219, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(01)00226-1.
58. Feybesse, J.L., Johan, V., Triboulet, C., Guerrot, C., Mayaga-Mikolo, F., Bouchot, V., and N'Dong, J., 1998, The West Central African belt: A model of 2.5-2.0 Ga accretion and two-phase orogenic evolution: Precambrian Research, v. 87, p. 161-216, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(97)00053-3.
59. Fitton, J.G., and Dunlop, H.M., 1985, The Cameroon line, West Africa, and its bearing on the origin of oceanic and continental alkali basalt: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 72, p. 23-38, doi: 10.1016/ 0012-821X(85)90114-1.
60. Fouch, M.J., James, D.E., VanDecar, J.C., van der Lee, S., and The Kaapvaal Seismic Group, 2004, Mantle seismic structure beneath the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons: South African Journal of Geology, v. 107, p. 33-44, doi: 10.2113/107.1-2.33.
61. Frei, R., Blenkinsop, T.G., and Shönberg, R., 1999, Geochronology of the late Archean Razi and Chilimanzi suites of granites in Zimbabwe: Implications for the late Archean tectonics of the Limpopo belt and Zimbabwe craton: South African Journal of Geology, v. 102, p. 55-63.
62. Frimmel, H.E., Zartman, R.E., and Späth, A., 2001, The Richtersveld igneous complex, South Africa: U-Pb zircon and geochemical evidence for beginning of Neoproterozoic continental break-up: The Journal of Geology, v. 109, p. 493-522, doi: 10.1086/320795.
63. Gaul, O.F., Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., and Pearson, N.J., 2000, Mapping olivine composition in the lithospheric mantle: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 182, p. 223-235, doi: 10.1016/ S0012-821X(00)00243-0.
64. Goes, S., and van der Lee, S., 2002, Thermal structure of the North American uppermost mantle interred from seismic topography: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 107, doi: 10.1029/2000JB000049.
65. Goodwin, A.M., 1996: Principles of Precambrian geology: London, Academic Press, 327 p.
66. Goscombe, B., Armstrong, R.A., and Barton, J.M., 2000, Geology of the Chewore Inliers, Zimbabwe: Constraining the Mesoproterozoic to Paleozoic evolution of the Zambezi belt: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 589-627, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(00)00041-5.
67. Grand, S., 2002, Mantle shear-wave tomography and the fate of subducted slabs: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, v. A360, p. 2475-2491.
68. Grand, S.P., 1994, Mantle shear structure beneath the Americas and surrounding oceans: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 11,591-11,621.
69. Grand, S.P., van der Hilst, R.D., and Widiyantoro, S., 1997, Global seismic tomography: A snapshot of convection in the Earth: GSA Today, v. 7, p. 1-7.
70. Griffi n, W.L., and O'Reilly, S.Y., 2007, The earliest subcontinental mantle, in Van Kranendonk, M., Smithies, H., and Bennett, V., eds., Earth's oldest rocks: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 1013-1035.
71. Griffi n, W.L., Ryan, C.G., O'Reilly, S.Y., Nixon, P.H., and Win, T.T., 1994, Trace elements in garnets from Tanzanian kimberlites: Relation to diamond content and tectonic setting, in Meyer, H.O.A., and Leonardos, O.H., eds., Diamonds: Characterization, genesis and exploration: Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (CPRM) Special Publication 1B/93, p. 346-358.
72. Griffi n, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Ryan, C.G., Gaul, O., and Ionov, D., 1998, Secular variation in the composition of subcontinental lithospheric mantle, in Braun, J., Dooley, J.C., Goleby, B.R., van der Hilst, R.D., and Klootwijk, C.T., eds., Structure and evolution of the Australian continent: Washington D.C., American Geophysical Union, Geodynamics, v. 26, p. 1-26.
73. Griffi n, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., and Ryan, C.G., 1999, The composition and origin of subcontinental lithospheric mantle, in Fei, Y., Bertka, C.M., and Mysen, B.O., eds., Mantle petrology: Field observations and high-pressure experimentation: A tribute to Francis R. (Joe) Boyd: Houston, Geochemical Society Special Publication No. 6, p. 13-45.
74. Griffi n, W.L., Spetsius, Z.V., Pearson, N.J., and O'Reilly, S.Y., 2002, In-situ Re-Os analysis of sulfide inclusions in kimberlitic olivine: New constraints on depletion events in the Siberian lithospheric mantle: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 3, no. 1069.
75. Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Natapov, L.M., and Ryan, C.G., 2003a, The evolution of lithospheric mantle beneath the Kalahari Craton and its margins: Lithos, v. 71, p. 215-241, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2003.07.006.
76. Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Abe, N., Aulbach, S., Davies, R.M., Pearson, N.J., Doyle, B.J., and Kivi, K., 2003b, The origin and evolution of Archean lithospheric mantle: Precambrian Research, v. 127, p. 19-41, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(03)00180-3.
77. Griffin, W.L., Graham, S., O'Reilly, S.Y., and Pearson, N.J., 2004, Lithosphere evolution beneath the Kaapvaal Craton Re-Os systematics of sulfides in mantle-derived peridotites: Chemical Geology, v. 208, p. 89-118, doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2004.04.007.
78. Griffin, W.L., Belousova, E., Ketchum, J., Beyer, E., and Saeed, A., 2005, TerraneChron®: Analysis of six samples from Botswana: GEMOC Report for WMC Resources WMS/05-02, 10 p.
79. Griffi n, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Afonso, J.C., and Begg, G.C., 2008, The composition and evolution of lithospheric mantle: A re-evaluation and its tectonic implications: Journal of Petrology, doi: 10.1093/petrology/ egn033.
80. Gung, Y., Panning, M., and Romanowicz, B., 2003, Global anisotropy and the thickness of continents: Nature, v. 422, p. 707-711, doi: 10.1038/ nature01559.
81. Gurnis, M., Mitrovica, J.X., Ritsema, J., and van Heijst, H.J., 2000, Constraining mantle density structure using geological evidence of surface uplift rates: The case of the African Superplume: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 1, p. 127-142, doi: 10.1029/1999GC000035.
82. 2O contents of minerals and rocks at pressure and temperature: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 5, doi: 10.1029/ 2003GC000614.
83. Haddoum, H., Choukroune, P., and Peucat, J.J., 1994, Evolution of the Precambrian In-Ouzzal block (Central Sahara, Algeria): Precambrian Research, v. 65, p. 155-166, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(94)90103-1.
84. Hanson, R.E., 2003, Proterozoic geochronology and tectonic evolution of southern Africa, in Yoshida, M., Windley, B.F., and Dasgupta, S., eds., Proterozoic east Gondwana: Supercontinent assembly and breakup: The Geological Society of London, Special Publication, v. 206, p. 427-463.
85. Hanson, R.E., Wilson, T.J., and Wardlaw, M.S., 1988, Deformed batholiths in the Pan-African Zambezi Belt, Zambia: Age and implications for regional Proterozoic tectonics: Geology, v. 16, p. 1134-1137, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<1134:DBITPA>2.3.CO;2.
86. Hanson, R.E., Hargrove, U.S., Martin, M.W., Bowring, S.A., Krol, M.A., Hodges, K.V., Munyanyiwa, H., and Blenkinsop, T.G., 1998, New geochronological constraints on the tectonic evolution of the Pan-African Zambezi belt, south-central Africa: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 27, p. 104-105.
87. Hargrove, S.U., Hanson, R.E., Martin, M.E., Blenkinsop, K.G., Bowring, S.A., Walker, N., and Munyanyiwa, H., 2003, Tectonic evolution of the Zambezi orogenic belt: Geochronological, structural, and petrological constraints from northern Zimbabwe: Precambrian Research, v. 123, p. 159-186, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(03)00066-4.
88. Hartnady, C., Joubert, P., and Stowe, C., 1985, Proterozoic crustal evolution in southwestern Africa: Episodes, v. 8, p. 236-243.
89. Hoal, B.G., and Heaman, L.M., 1995, The Sinclair Sequence: U-Pb age constraints from the Awasib Mountains area: Communications Geological Survey of Namibia, v. 10, p. 83-91.
90. Hoal, K.O., 2004, Samples of Proterozoic iron-enriched mantle from the Premier kimberlite: Lithos, v. 71, p. 259-272, doi: 10.1016/ S0024-4937(03)00116-6.
91. Hofmann, A., Kröner, A., and Brandl, G., 1998, Field relationships of mid- to late-Archean high-grade gneisses of igneous and sedimentary parentage in the Sand River, Central Zone of the Limpopo Belt, South Africa: South African Journal of Geology, v. 101, p. 185-200.
92. Holzer, L., Frei, R., Barton, J.M., Jr., and Kramers, J.R., 1998, Unraveling the record of successive high grade events in the Central zone of the Limpopo belt using Pb single phase dating of metamorphic minerals: Precambrian Research, v. 87, p. 87-115, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(97)00058-2.
93. Huismans, R.S., and Beaumont, C., 2008, Complex rifted continental margins explained by dynamical models of depth-dependent lithospheric extension: Geology, v. 36, p. 163-166, doi: 10.1130/G24231A.1.
94. Jacobs, J., and Thomas, R.J., 1994, Oblique collision at about 1.1 Ga along the southern margin of the Kaapvaal continent, southeast Africa: Geologische Rundschau, v. 83, p. 322-333.
95. 39Ar thermochronological constraints on the structural evolution of the Mesoproterozoic Natal Metamorphic Province, SE Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 86, p. 71-92, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(97)00042-9.
96. James, D.E., Fouch, M.J., VanDecar, J.C., van der Lee, S., and Kaapvaal Seismic Group, 2001, Tectospheric structure beneath southern Africa: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 28, p. 485-488, doi: 10.1029/ 2000GL012578.
97. James, D.E., Boyd, F.R., Schutt, D., Bell, D.R., and Carlson, R.W., 2004, Xenolith constraints on seismic velocities in the upper mantle beneath southern Africa: Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 5, doi: 10.1029/2003GC000551.
98. Janse, A.J.A., 1994, Is Clifford's Rule still valid? Affirmative examples from around the world, in Meyer, H.O.A., and Leonardos, O.H., eds., Diamonds: Characterization, genesis and exploration: Brazilia, Departement Nacional da Production Mineralia, p. 215-235.
99. Jaques, A.L., and Milligan, P.R., 2004, Patterns and controls on the distribution of diamondiferous intrusions in Australia: Lithos, v. 77, p. 783-802, doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2004.03.042.
100. John, T., Schenk, V., Hause, K., Scherer, E.E., and Tembo, F., 2003, Evidence for a Neoproterozoic ocean in central south Africa from mid-oceanic-ridge-type geochemical signatures and pressure-temperature estimates of Zambian eclogites: Geology, v. 31, p. 243-246, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(2003)031<0243:EFANOI>2.0.CO;2.
101. Johnson, S.P., and Rivers, T., 2004, Review of the Mesoproterozoic to early Paleozoic magmatic and tectonothermal history of central southern Africa: Implications for Rodinia and Gondwana: Geoscience Africa, v. 2004, p. 309-310.
102. Johnson, S.P., Rivers, T., and De Waele, B., 2005, A review of the Mesoproterozoic to Early Paleozoic magmatic and tectonothermal history of Central Southern Africa: Implications for Rodinia and Gondwana: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 162, p. 433-450, doi: 10.1144/ 0016-764904-028.
103. Kampunzu, A.B., Tembo, F., Matheis, G., Kapenda, D., and Huntsman-Mapila, P., 2000, Geochemistry and tectonic setting of mafic igneous units in the Neoproterozoic Katangan basin, Central Africa: Implications for Rodinia break-up: Gondwana Research, v. 3, p. 125-153, doi: 10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70093-9.
104. Katongo, C., Koller, F., Kloetzli, U., Koeberl, C., Tembo, F., and De Waele, B., 2004, Petrography, geochemistry, and geochronology of granitoid rocks in the Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic Lufilian-Zambezi belt, Zambia: Implications for tectonic setting and regional correlation: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 40, p. 219-244, doi: 10.1016/ j.jafrearsci.2004.12.007.
105. Kazmin, V.G., 2002, Precambrian tectonics and geodynamics of Namibia, in Mezhelovsy, L., ed., Prospective fields of geological, geodynamic and metallogenic investigations in Namibia: Scientific and applied aspects: Moscow, Inter-regional Centre for Geological Cartography Russia, p. 57-77.
106. Key, R.M., Liyungu, A.K., Njamu, F.M., Somwe, V., Banda, J., Mosley, P.N., and Armstrong, R.A., 2001, The western arm of the Lufilian Arc in NW Zambia and its potential for copper mineralization: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 33, p. 503-528, doi: 10.1016/ S0899-5362(01)00098-7.
107. Kieffer, B., Arndt, N., Lapierre, H., Bastieni, F., Bosh, D., Pecher, A., Yirgu, G., Ayalew, D., Weis, D., Jerram, D.A., Keller, F., and Meugnot, C., 2004, Flood and shield basalts from Ethiopia: Magmas from the African Superswell: Journal of Petrology, v. 45, p. 793-834, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egg112.
108. Klerkx, J., Liegeois, J.P., Lavreau, J., and Classens, W., 1987, Crustal evolution of the northern Kibaran belt, eastern and central Africa, in Kröher, A., ed., Proterozoic lithospheric evolution: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union, Geodynamics Series, v. 17, p. 217-233.
109. Kokonyangi, J., Armstrong, R., Kampunzu, A.B., Yoshida, M., and Okudaira, T.R., 2004, U-Pb zircon geochronology and petrology of granitoids from Mitwaba (Katanga, Congo): Implications for the evolution of the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran belt: Precambrian Research, v. 132, p. 79-106, doi: 10.1016/j.precamres.2004.02.007.
110. Kokonyangi, J., Kampunzu, A.B., Poujol, M., Okudaira, T., Yoshida, M., and Shabeer, K.P., 2005, Petrology and geochronology of Mesoproterozoic mafic-intermediate plutonic rocks from Mitwaba (D.R. Congo): Implications for the evolution of the Kibaran belt in central Africa: Geological Magazine, v. 142, p. 109-130, doi: 10.1017/S0016756804009951.
111. Korhonen, J.V., Farihead, J.D., Hamoudi, M., Hemant, K., Lesur, V., Mandea, M., Maus, S., Purucker, M., Ravat, D., Sazonova, T., and Thébault, E., 2007, Magnetic anomaly map of the world: Commission for the Geological Map of the World.
112. Kouamelan, A.N., Peucat, J.J., and Delor, C., 1997, Archean (3.15 Ga) relics at the heart of Birrimian (2.1 Ga) magmatism in the Ivory Coast, West African Craton: Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Series II, Sciences de la Terre et des Planets, v. 324, p. 719-727.
113. Kreissig, K.L., Holzer, L.R., Frei, R., Villa, I.M., Kramersa, J.D., Kröner, A., Smith, C.A., and van Reenen, V.V., 2001, Geochronology of the Hout River shear zone and the metamorphism in the Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Belt, Southern Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 109, p. 145-173, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(01)00147-4.
114. Kröner, A., and Tegtmeyer, A., 1994, Gneiss-greenstone relationships in the Archean Gneiss Complex of south-western Swaziland, southern Africa and implications for early crustal evolution: Precambrian Research, v. 67, p. 109-139, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(94)90007-8.
115. Kröner, A., Sacchi, R., Jaeckel, P., and Costa, M., 1997, Kibaran magmatism and Pan-African granulite metamorphism in northern Mozambique: Single zircon ages and regional implications: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 25, p. 467-484, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(97)00117-6.
116. Kröner, A., Willner, A.P., Hegner, E., Jaeckel, P., and Nemchin, A., 2001, Single zircon ages, PT evolution and Nd isotopic systematics of high-grade gneisses in southern Malawi and their bearing on the evolution of the Mozambique belt in southeastern Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 109, p. 257-291, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(01)00150-4.
117. Lawrence, S.R., Munday, S., and Bray, R., 2002, Regional geology and geophysics of the eastern Gulf of Guinea (Niger delta to Rio Muni): Tulsa, Oklahoma, Leading Edge, v. 21, p. 1112-1117, doi: 10.1190/ 1.1523752.
118. Lee, C.T., and Rudnick, R.L., 1999, Compositionally stratified cratonic lithosphere: Petrology and geochemistry of peridotite xenoliths from the Labait volcano, Tanzania, in Gurney, J.J., et al., eds., Proceedings of VIIth International Kimberlite Conference: Cape Town, Red Roof Design, p. 503-521.
119. Lee, D.-Ch., Halliday, A.N., Fitton, J.G., and Poli, G., 1994, Isotopic variations with distance and time in volcanic islands of the Cameroon Line: Evidence of a mantle plume: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 123, p. 119-138, doi: 10.1016/0012-821X(94)90262-3.
120. Lenardic, A., Moresi, L., and Muehlhaus, H., 2000, The role of mobile belts for the longevity of deep cratonic lithosphere: The crumple zone model: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 27, p. 1235-1238, doi: 10.1029/ 1999GL008410.
121. Lenoir, J.L., Liegeois, J.-P., Theunissen, K., and Klerkx, J., 1994, The Paleoproterozoic Ubendian shear belt in Tanzania: Geochronology and structure: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 19, p. 169-184, doi: 10.1016/0899-5362(94)90059-0.
122. Li, A., and Burke, K., 2006, Upper mantle structure of southern Africa from Rayleigh wave tomography: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 111, doi: 10.1029/2006JB004321.
123. Liègeois, J.P., Latouche, L., Boughrara, M., Navez, J., and Guiraud, M., 2003, The LATEA metacraton (Central Hoggar, Tuareg shield): Behaviour of an old passive margin during the pan-African orogeny: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 37, p. 161-190, doi: 10.1016/ j.jafrearsci.2003.05.004.
124. Lithgow-Bertelloni, C., and Silver, P.G., 1998, Dynamic topography, plate driving forces and the African Superswell: Nature, v. 395, p. 269-272, doi: 10.1038/26212.
125. Loose, D., Schenk, V., Schumann, A., and Tiberindwa, J., 2004, Pan-African UHP-metamorphism at the eastern border of the Congo Craton, Labwor Hills, Uganda: Orleans, Abstracts 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 268.
126. Maboko, M.A.H., and Nakamura, E., 1996, Nd and Sm isotopic mapping of the Archean-Proterozoic boundary in southeastern Tanzania using granites as probes for crustal growth: Precambrian Research, v. 77, p. 105-115, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(95)00048-8.
127. Manya, S., and Maboko, M.A.H., 2003, Dating basaltic volcanism in the Neoarchaean Sukumaland greenstone belt of the Tanzania Craton using the Sm-Nd method: Implications for the geological evolution of the Tanzania Craton: Precambrian Research, v. 121, p. 35-45, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(02)00195-X.
128. Mapani, B.S.E., Rivers, T., Tembo, F., and Katongo, C., 2001, Terrane mapping in the eastern Irumide and Mozambique belts: Implications for the assembly and dispersal of Rodinia, in McCourt, S., ed.: Durban, South Africa, International Geoscience Programme 418, 4th Field Meeting, University of Durban-Westville.
129. Mapani, B.S.E., Rivers, T., Tembo, F., De Waele, B., and Katongo, S., 2004, Growth of the Irumide terranes and slices of Archean age in Eastern Zambia: Johannesburg, Extended Abstracts, Geoscience Africa, v. 2004, p. 414-415.
130. Mapeo, R.B.M., Kampunzu, A.B., Armstrong, R.A., and Ramokate, L.V., 2004, SHRIMP U-Pb zircon ages of granitoids from the Kraaipan granite-greenstone terrane of SE Botswana: Implications for the evolutions of the northwestern edge of the Kaapvaal craton: Orleans, Abstracts, 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 279.
131. Meyers, J.B., Rosendahl, B.R., Groshel-Becker, H., Austin, J.A., Jr., and Rona, P.A., 1996, Deep penetrating MCS imaging of the rift-to-drift transition, offshore Daula and North Gabon basins, West Africa: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 13, p. 791-835, doi: 10.1016/ 0264-8172(96)00030-X.
132. Möller, A., Appel, P., Mezger, K., and Schenk, V., 1995, Evidence for 2 Ga subduction zone: Eclogites in the Usagaran belt in Tanzania: Geology, v. 23, p. 1067-1070, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(1995)023<1067:EFAGSZ>2.3.CO;2.
133. Mooney, W.D., Laske, G., and Masters, T.G., 1998, Crust 5.1: A global
134. Muhongo, S., Tuisku, P., Mnali, S., Temu, E., Appel, P., and Stendal, H., 2002, High-pressure granulite-facies metagabbros in the Ubendian Belt of SW Tanzania: Preliminary petrography and P-T estimates: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 279-285, doi: 10.1016/ S0899-5362(02)00026-X.
135. Nyblade, A.A., and Langston, C.A., 1998, Upper mantle P wave velocities beneath southern Africa and the origin of the African superswell: South African Geophysical Review, v. 2, p. 55-61.
136. Nyblade, A.A., and Robinson, S.W., 1994, The African superswell: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 21, p. 765-768, doi: 10.1029/94GL00631.
137. Oliver, G.J.H., Johnson, S.P., Williams, I.S., and Herd, D.A., 1998, Relict 1.4 Ga oceanic crust in the Zambezi Valley, northern Zimbabwe: Evidence for the Mid-Proterozoic super continental fragmentation: Geology, v. 26, p. 571-573, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(1998)026<0571:RGOCIT>2.3.CO;2.
138. O'Neill, C.J., Moresi, L., and Jaques, A.L., 2005, Geodynamic controls on diamond deposits: Implications for Australian occurrences: Tectonophysics, v. 404, p. 217-236, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2005.04.010.
139. O'Reilly, S.Y., and Griffin, W.L., 1985, A xenolith-derived geotherm for southeastern Australia and its geophysical implications: Tectonophysics, v. 111, p. 41-63, doi: 10.1016/0040-1951(85)90065-4.
140. O'Reilly, S.Y., and Griffin, W.L., 1996, 4-D lithospheric mapping: A review of the methodology with examples: Tectonophysics, v. 262, p. 3-18, doi: 10.1016/00401951(96)00010-8.
141. O'Reilly, S.Y., and Griffin, W.L., 2004, Origin and evolution of continental lithospheric mantle: Buoyant blobs, intracratonic eddies, and fertile upwellings: Florence, Italy, Extended Abstracts, 17th International Geological Congress.
142. O'Reilly, S.Y., and Griffin, W.L., 2006, Imaging chemical and thermal heterogeneity in the sub-continental lithospheric mantle: Geophysical implications: Tectonophysics, v. 416, p. 289-309, doi: 10.1016/ j.tecto.2005.11.014.
143. O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L., Poudjom Djomani, Y.H., and Morgan, P., 2001, Are lithospheres forever?: Tracking changes in subcontinental lithospheric mantle through time: GSA Today, v. 11, p. 4-10, doi: 10.1130/1052-51 73(2001)011<0004:ALFTCI>2.0.CO;2.
144. O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L., Zhang, M., and Begg, G., 2008, Archean lithospheric mantle: Its formation, its composition and today's refertilized remains: Frankfurt, Extended Abstract, no. 9IKC-A-00085, 9th International Kimberlite Conference (www.9ikc.com).
145. Pearson, N.J., Alard, O., Griffin, W.L., Jackson, S.E., and O'Reilly, S.Y., 2002, In situ measurement of Re-Os isotopes in mantle sulfides by laser ablation multicollector inductively-coupled mass spectrometry: Analytical methods and preliminary results: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 66, p. 1037-1050, doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00823-7.
146. Peltonen, P., Manttari, I., Huhma, H., and Kontinen, A., 2003, Archean zircons from the mantle: The Joruma ophiolite revisited: Geology, v. 31, p. 645-648, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0645:AZFTMT>2.0.CO;2.
147. Peucat, J.J., Drareni, A., Latouche, L., Deloule, E., and Vidal, P., 2003, U-Pb zircon (TIMS and SIMS) and Sm-Nd whole-rock geochronology of the Gour-Oumelalen granulitic basement, Hoggar massif, Tuareg shield, Algeria: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 37, p. 229-239, doi: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2003.03.001.
148. Pickup, S.L.B., Whitmarsh, R.B., Fowler, C.M.R., and Reston, T.J., 1996, Insight into the nature of the ocean continent transition off West Iberia from a deep multichannel seismic reflection profile: Geology, v. 24, p. 1079-1082, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(1996)024<1079:IITNOT>2.3.CO;2.
149. Pin, C., and Poidevin, J.L., 1987, U-Pb zircon evidence for Pan African granulite facies metamorphism in the central African Republic: A new interpretation of the high grade series of the northern border of Congo Craton: Precambrian Research, v. 36, p. 303-331, doi: 10.1016/ 0301-9268(87)90027-1.
150. Pinna, P., Journalde, G., Calvez, J.Y., Mroz, J.P., and Marques, J.M., 1993, The Mozambique Belt in northern Mosambique: Neoproterozoic (1100-850 Ma) crustal growth and tectogenesis, and superimposed Pan-African (800-550 Ma) tectonism: Precambrian Research, v. 62, p. 1-59, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(93)90093-H.
151. Pinna, P., Cocherie, A., Thiéblemont, D., Jezequel, P., and Kayogoma, E., 2004, The making of the East African Craton (2.93-2.53 Ga): Orleans, Abstracts 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 336.
152. Porada, H., and Berhorst, V., 2000, Towards a new understanding of the Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic Lufilian and Northern Zambezi Belts in Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 727-771, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(00)00049-X.
153. Potrel, A., Peucat, J., Fanning, C.M., Auvray, B., Burg, J., and Caruba, C., 1996, 3.5 Ga old terranes in the West African Craton, Mauritania: The Geological Society of London, v. 153, p. 507-510, doi: 10.1144/ gsjgs.153.4.0507.
154. Poudjom Djomani, Y.H., O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L., and Morgan, P., 2001, The density structure of subcontinental lithosphere: Constraints on delamination models: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 184, p. 605-621, doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00362-9.
155. Prendergast, M.D., 2004, The Bulawayan Supergroup: A late Archaean passive margin-related large igneous province in the Zimbabwe craton: The Geological Society of London, v. 161, p. 431-445.
156. Priestley, K., McKenzie, D., and Debayle, E., 2006, The state of the upper mantle beneath southern Africa: Tectophysics, v. 416, p. 101-112, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2005.11.024.
157. Raith, J.G., Cornell, D.H., Frimmel, H.E., and de Beer, C.H., 2003, New insights into the geology of the Namaqua Tectonic Province, South Africa, from ion probe dating of detrital and metamorphic zircon: The Journal of Geology, v. 111, p. 347-366, doi: 10.1086/373973.
158. Ramokate, L.V., Mapeo, R.B.M., Corfu, F., and Kampunzu, A.B., 2000, Proterozoic geology and regional correlation of the Ganzi-Makunda area, western Botswana: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 453-466, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(00)00031-2.
159. Rampone, E., 2004, Mantle dynamics during Permo-Mesozoic extension of the Europe-Adria lithosphere: Insights from the Ligurian ophiolites: Periodico di Mineralogia, Special Issue 1, v. 73, p. 215-230.
160. Rampone, E., Romairone, A., Abouchami, W., Piccardo, G.B., and Hofmann, A.W., 2005, Chronology, petrology and isotope geochemistry of the Erro-Tobbio peridotites (Ligurian Alps, Italy): Records of late Paleozoic lithospheric extension: Journal of Petrology, v. 46, p. 799-827, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egi001.
161. Renka, R.J., 1988, Multivariate interpolation of large sets of scattered data: Association for Computing Machinery, Transactions on Mathematical Software, v. 14, p. 139-148, doi: 10.1145/45054.45055.
162. Ring, U., Kröner, A., and Toulkerides, T., 1997, Paleoproterozoic granulite-facies metamorphism and granitoid intrusions in the Ubendian-Usagaran Orogen of northern Malawi, east-central Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 85, p. 27-51, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(97)00028-4.
163. Ring, U., Kröner, A., Buchwaldt, R., Toulkeridis, Th., and Layer, P.W., 2002, Shear-zone patterns and eclogitefacies metamorphism in the Mozambique Belt of northern Malawi, east-central Africa: Implications for the assembly of Gondwana: Precambrian Research, v. 116, p. 19-56, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(01)00233-9.
164. Ritsema, J., and van Heijst, H., 2000, New seismic model of the upper mantle beneath Africa: Geology, v. 28, p. 63-66, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(2000)28<63:NSMOTU>2.0.CO;2.
165. Ritsema, J., Ni, S., Helmberger, D.V., and Crotwell, H.P., 1998, Evidence for strong shear velocity reductions and velocity gradient in the lower mantle beneath Africa: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 25, p. 4245-4248, doi: 10.1029/1998GL900127.
166. Ritsema, J., van Heijst, H., and Woodhouse, J.H., 1999, Complex shear wave velocity structure imaged beneath Africa and Iceland: Science, v. 286, p. 1925-1928, doi: 10.1126/science.286.5446.1925.
167. Robb, L.J., Armstrong, R.A., and Waters, D.J., 1999, The history of granulite-facies metamorphism and crustal growth from single zircon U-Pb geochronology: Namaqualand, South Africa: Journal of Petrology, v. 40, p. 1747-1770, doi: 10.1093/petrology/40.12.1747.
168. Rudnick, R.L., McDonough, W.F., and O'Connell, R.J., 1998, Thermal structure, thickness and composition of continental lithosphere: Chemical Geology, v. 145, p. 395-411, doi: 10.1016/S0009-2541(97)00151-4.
169. Santos, J.O.S., Hartmann, L.A., Gaudette, H.E., Groves, D.I., McNaughton, N.J., and Fletcher, I.R., 2000, A new understanding of the provinces of the Amazon Craton based on integration of field mapping and U-Pb and Sm-Nd geochronology: Gondwana Research, v. 3, p. 453-488, doi: 10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70755-3.
170. Santos, J.O.S., Potter, P.E., Reis, N.J., Hartmann, L.A., Fletcher, I.R., and McNaughton, N.J., 2003, Age, source and regional stratigraphy of the Roraima Supergroup and Roraima-like outliers in northern South America based on U-Pb geochronology: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 115, p. 331-348, doi: 10.1130/ 0016-7606(2003)115<0331:ASARSO>2.0.CO;2.
171. Schandelmeier, H., Wipfler, E., Küster, D., Sultan, M., Becker, R., Stern, R.J., and Abdelsalam, M., 1994, Atmur-Delgo suture: A Neoproterozoic oceanic basin extending into interior of northeast Africa: Geology, v. 22, p. 563-566, doi: 10.1130/ 0091-7613(1994)022<0563:ADSANO>2.3.CO;2.
172. Schenk, V., Wegner, H., Appel, P., and Schumann, A., 2004, Pan-African granulite-facies reworking of Archean granulites in the West Nile region (Congo craton; Uganda): 20th Colloquium on African Geology, Abstracts volume 127, BRGM, Orleans, France, June 2-7.
173. Schlüter, T., 1997, Geology of East Africa: Berlin, Gebrüder Borntraeger, 484 p.
174. Schmitz, M.D., and Bowring, S.A., 2004, Lower crustal granulite formation during Mesoproterozoic Natal-Namaqua collisional orogenesis, southern Africa: South African Journal of Geology, v. 107, p. 261-284, doi: 10.2113/107.1-2.261.
175. Schumann, A., Barifaijo, E., and Geisler, T., 1999, Preliminary results on the origin of granitoid rocks of Eastern Uganda and around Kampala - Magmatic or metasomatic?: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 28, no. 4A, p. 71-72.
176. Schumann, A., Schenk, V., Kulyanyingi, P.K., Morelli, C., Barton, E., and Garbe-Schönberg, D., 2004, Evidence for the widespread occurrence of neo-Archean GGMtype granitoids in eastern Uganda: Orleans, Abstracts, 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 366.
177. Sebai, A., Stutzmann, E., Mantagner, J.-P., Sicilia, D., and Beucler, E., 2006, Anisotropic structure of the African upper mantle from Rayleigh and Love wave tomography: Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, v. 155, p. 48-62, doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2005.09.009.
178. Shillington, D.J., Holbrook, W.S., Tucholke, B.E., Hopper, J.R., Louden, K.E., Larsen, H.C., Van Avendonk, H.J.A., Deemer, S., and Hall, J., 2004, Data report: Marine geophysical data on the Newfoundland nonvolcanic rifted margin around SCREECH transect 2, in Tucholke, B.E., Sibuet, J.C., and Klaus, A., eds.: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial reports, v. 210, p. 1-36.
179. Simmons, N.A., Forte, A.M., and Grand, S.P., 2006, Constraining mantle flow with seismic and geodynamic data: A joint approach: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 246, p. 109-124, doi: 10.1016/ j.epsl.2006.04.003.
180. Simmons, N.A., Forte, A.M., and Grand, S.P., 2007, Thermochemical structure and dynamics of the African superplume: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 34, doi: 10.1029/2006GL028009.
181. Sleep, N.H., Ebinger, C.J., and Kendall, J.M., 2002, Deflection of mantle plume material by cratonic keels, in Fowler, C.M.R., Ebinger, C.J., and Hawkesworth, C.J., eds., The early Earth: Physical, chemical, and biological development: The Geological Society of London, Special Publication, v. 199, p. 135-150.
182. Sobolev, S.V., and Babeyko, A.Y., 2005, What drives orogeny in the Andes?: Geology, v. 33, p. 617-620.
183. Stein, M., and Hoffmann, A.W., 1994, Mantle plumes and episodic crustal growth: Nature, v. 372, p. 63-68, doi: 10.1038/372063a0.
184. Stern, R.J., 1994, Arc assembly and continental collision in the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: Implications for the consolidation of Gondwanaland: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 22, p. 319-351.
185. Tack, L., Fernandez-Alonso, M., Tahon, A., Wingate, M., and Barritt, S., 2002, The "Northeastern Kibaran Belt" (NKB) and its mineralisation reconsidered: New constraints from a revised lithostratigraphy, a GIS compilation of existing geological maps and a review of recently published as well as unpublished igneous emplacement ages in Burundi: Windhoek, Namibia, Extended Abstracts, 11th Quadrennial International Association on the Genesis of Ore Deposits Symposium and Geocongress 2002, p. 42.
186. Tahon, A., Fernandez-Alonso, M., Tack, L., and Barritt, S.D., 2004, New insights about the evolution of the Mesoproterozoic Northeastern Kibaran belt (Central Africa): Orleans, Abstracts, 20th Colloquium of African Geology, p. 389.
187. Taylor, S.R., and McLennan, S.M., 1985, The continental crust: Its composition and evolution: Oxford, Blackwell, 312 p.
188. Tchameni, R., Mezger, K., Nsifa, N.E., and Pouclet, A., 2000, Neoarchean crustal evolution in the Congo Craton: Evidence from K rich granitoids of the Ntem Complex, southern Cameroon: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 133-147, doi: 10.1016/S0899-5362(00)00012-9.
189. Thomas, R.J., Eglington, B.M., Bowring, S.A., Retief, E.A., and Walraven, F., 1993, New isotope data from a Neoproterozoic porphyritic granitoid-charnockite suite from Natal, South Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 62, p. 83-101, doi: 10.1016/0301-9268(93)90095-J.
190. Thomas, R.J., Chevallier, L.P., Gresse, P.G., Harmer, R.E., Eglington, B.M., Armstrong, R.A., de Beer, C.H., Martini, J.E.J., de Kock, G.S., Macey, P.H., and Ingram, B.A., 2002, Precambrian evolution of the Sirwa window, Anti-Atlas Orogen, Morocco: Precambrian Research, v. 118, p. 1-57, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(02)00075-X.
191. Toteu, S.M., van Schmus, W.R., Penaye, J., and Michard, A., 2001, New U-Pb and Sm-Nd data from north-central Cameroon and its bearing on the pre-Pan African history of central Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 108, p. 45-73, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00149-2.
192. Toteu, S.F., Penaye, J., Tchameni, R., and Van Schmus, W.R., 2003, Extension and evolution of the 2.1 Ga West-Central African belt in Camerun: European Geophysical Society, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 5, p. 11554.
193. Van Avendonk, H.J., Holbrook, W.S., Nunes, G.T., Shillington, D.J., Tucholke, B.E., Louden, K.E., Larsen, H.C., and Hopper, J.R., 2005, Seismic velocity structure of the Newfoundland rifted margin: Evidence for thinned continental crust, unroofed mantle and slow-spreading oceanic crust: Eos (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 86, no. 52, Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract T43B-1389.
194. van der Lee, S., and Nolet, G., 1997, Upper mantle velocity S structure of North America: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 102, p. 22,185-22,838.
195. 39Ar geochronological constraints on the tectonic evolution of the easternmost part of Zambezi orogenic belt, northeast Zimbabwe: Precambrian Research, v. 98, p. 67-82, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(99)00039-X.
196. Walraven, F., and Rumvegeri, B.T., 1993, Implications of whole-rock Pb-Pb and zircon evaporation dates for the early metamorphic history of the Kasaï craton, southern Zaïre: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 16, p. 395-404, doi: 10.1016/0899-5362(93)90098-B.
197. Weeraratne, D.S., Forsyth, D.W., Fischer, K.M., and Nyblade, A.A., 2003, Evidence for an upper mantle plume beneath the Tanzanian craton from Rayleigh wave tomography: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 108, B9, doi: 10.1029/2002JB002273.
198. Wittlinger, G., and Farra, V., 2007, Converted waves reveal a thick and layered tectosphere beneath the Kalahari super-craton: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 254, p. 404-415, doi: 10.1016/ j.epsl.2006.11.048.
199. Woolley, A.R., 1987, Alkaline rocks and carbonatites of the world, Volume 3: London, British Museum (Natural History), 335 p.
200. Xu, X., O'Reilly, S.Y., Griffin, W.L., and Zhou, X., 2000, Genesis of young lithospheric mantle in southeastern China: A LAM-ICPMS trace element study: Journal of Petrology, v. 41, p. 111-148, doi: 10.1093/ petrology/41.1.111.
201. Yibas, B., Reimold, W.U., Armstrong, R., Koeberl, C., Anhaeusser, C.R., and Phillips, D., 2002, The tectonostratigraphy, granitoid geochronology and geological evolution of the Precambrian of southern Ethiopia: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 57-84, doi: 10.1016/ S0899-5362(01)00099-9.
202. Zheng, J., Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Zhang, M., Pearson, N.J., and Luo, Z., 2006, The lithospheric mantle beneath the southern Tianshan area, NW China: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 151, p. 457-479, doi: 10.1007/s00410-006-0071-x.