Functional amino acids and fatty acids for enhancing production performance of sows and piglets

Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 295-306

  Kim, Sung Woo ^a,b   Mateo, Ronald D ^a   Yin, Yu Long ^c   Wu, Guoyao ^a,b,c  

^a TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c INSTITUTE OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS   (China)

Author keywords

Amino acids; Fatty acids; Growth; Health; Neonate; Pigs; Reproduction; Sows

Indexed keywords

SUIDAE;

EID: 33847094225     PISSN: 10112367     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5713/ajas.2007.295     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Anderson, M. and K. L. Fritsche. 2002. (n-3) Fatty acid and infectious disease resistance. J. Nutr. 132:3566-3576.
2. Arbuckle, L. D. and S. M. Innis. 1993. Docohexaenoic acid is transferred through maternal diet to milk and to tissues of naturally milk fed piglets. J. Nutr. 123:1668-1675.
3. Arntzen, K. J., O. L. Brekke, L. Vatten and R. Austgulen. 1998. Reduced production of PGE2 and PGF2 alpha from decidual cell cultures supplemented with N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 56:183-195.
4. Baker, D. H. 1997. Ideal amino acid profiles for swine and poultry and their applications in feed formulation. Biokyowa Tech. Rev. 9:1-24.
5. Ban, H., K. Shigemitsu, T. Yamatsuji, M. Haisa, T. Nakajo, M. Takaoka, T. Nobuhisa, M. Gunduz, N. Tanaka and Y. Naomoto. 2004. Arginine and leucine regulate p70 S6 kinase and 4E-BP1 in intestinal epithelial cells. Int. J. Mol. Med. 13:537-543.
6. Bazinet, R. P., E. G. McMillan and S. C. Cunnane. 2003. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid increases the n-3 PUPA content of sows milk and the tissues of the suckling piglet. Lipids 38:1045-1049.
7. Brazle, A. E., B. J. Johnson, E. C. Titgemeyer, S. K. Webel and D. L. Davis. 2005. Fatty acid composition of the porcine conceptus in response to maternal omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. J. Anim. Sci. 83 (Suppl. 1):410(Abstr.).
8. Brazle, A. E., B. J. Johnson, E. C. Titgemeyer, S. K. Webel and D. L. Davis. 2006. Fatty acid composition of the pig conceptus and endometrium in response to maternal omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. J. Anim. Sci. 84(Suppl. 2):77(Abstr.).
9. Bressner, G, S. W. Kim and R. A. Easter. 2000. Effects of sprit-weaning on the performance of primiparous sows and the performance nursing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 78 (Suppl. 1): 240(Abstr).
10. Bronte, V. and P. Zanovello. 2005. Regulation of immune responses by L-arginine metabolism. Nature Rev. Immunol. 5:641-654.
11. Brosnan, J. T. 2001. Amino acids, then and now - a reflection on Sir Hans Kreb's contribution to nitrogen metabolism. IUBMB Life 52:265-270.
12. Coeffier, M., S. Claeyssens, B. Hecketsweiler, A. Lavoinne, P. Ducrotte and P. Dechelotte. 2003. Enteral glutamine stimulates protein synthesis and decreases ubiquitin mRNA level in human gut mucosa. Am. J. Physiol. 285:0266-0273.
13. Cole, G. M., G P. Lim, F. Yang, B. Tter, A. Begum, Q. Ma, M. E. H. White and S. A. Frautschy. 2005. Prevention of Alzheimers disease: Omega 3 fatty acid and phenolic anti-oxidant interventions. Neurobiol. Aging 26S:S133-S136.
14. Cori, B., M. Rhoads, R. J. Harrell, A. T. Blikslager, O. T. Phillips, L. A. Gatlin, X. M. Niu and J. Odle. 2005. Rotaviral enteritis stimulates ribosomal p70 s6 kinase and increases intestinal protein synthesis in neonatal pigs. FASEB J. 19:A976.
15. Crawford, M. A. 2000. Placental delivery of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids: Implication for the lipid nutrition of preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:2758-2848.
16. Crawford, M. A., K. Casteloe, K. Ghebremeskel, A. Phylactos, L. Skirvin and F. Stacey. 1997. Are deficits of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids responsible for the neural and vascular complications of preterm babies? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66:10328-1041S.
17. Curthoys, N. P. and M. Watford. 1995. Regulation of glutaminase activity and glutamine metabolism. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 15:133-159.
18. Delion, S., S. Chalon, J. Hérault, D. Guilloteau, J. C. Besnard and G. Durand. 1994. Chronic dietary -linolenic acid deficiency alters dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission in rats. J. Nutr. 124:2466-2476.
19. Dourmad, J. Y., M. Etienne, A. Prunier and J. Noblet. 1994. The effect of energy and protein intake of sows on their longevity: a review, Livest. Prod. Sci. 40:87-97.
20. Elias, S. L. and S. M. Innis. 2001. Newborn infant plasma trans, conjugated linoleic, n-6, n-3 fatty acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation and birth weight and length. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73:807-814.
21. Escobar, J., J. W. Frank, A. Suryawan, H. V. Nguyen, S. R. Kimball, L. S. Jefferson and T. A. Davis. 2005. Physiological rise in plasma leucine stimulates muscle protein synthesis in neonatal pigs by enhancing translation initiation factor activation. Am. J. Physiol. 288:E914-E921.
22. Escobar, J., J. W. Frank, A. Suryawan, H. V. Nguyen, S. R. Kimball, L. S. Jefferson and T. A. Davis. 2006. Regulation of cardiac and skeletal muscle protein synthesis by individual branched-chain amino acids in neonatal pigs. Am. J. Physiol. 290:E612-E621.
23. Esteban, S., C. Nicolaus, A. Garmundi, R. E. Rial, A. B. Rodriguez, E. Ortega and C. B. Ibars. 2004. Effect of orally administered L-tryptophan on serotonin, melatonin, and the innate immune response in the rat. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 267:39-46.
24. Field, C. J., I. R. Johnson and P. D. Schley. 2002. Nutrients and their role in host resistance to infection. J. Leuk. Biol. 71:16-32.
25. Flynn, N. E. and G. Wu. 1996. An important role for endogenous synthesis of arginine in maintaining arginine homeostasis in neonatal pigs. Am. J. Physiol. 271:R1149-R1155.
26. Flynn, N. E., C. J. Meininger, T. E. Haynes and G. Wu. 2002. The metabolic basis of arginine nutrition and pharmacotherapy. Biomed. Pharmacother. 56:427-438.
27. Flynn, N. E., D. A. Knabe, B. K. Mallick and G. Wu. 2000. Postnatal changes of plasma amino acids in suckling pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 78:2369-2375.
28. Frank, J. W., J. Escobar, H. V. Nguyen, S. C. Jobgen, T. A. Davis, and G Wu. 2006. Oral N-carbamylglutamate supplementation increases growth rate in sow-reared piglets. FASEB J. A266.3.
29. Fritsche, K. L., D. W. Alexander, N. A. Cassity and S. C. Huang. 1993b. Maternally-supplied fish oil alters piglet immune cell fatty acid profile and eicosanoid production. Lipids 28:677-682.
30. Fritsche, K. L., S. C. Huang and N. A. Cassity. 1993a. Enrichment of omega-3 fatty acids in suckling pigs by maternal dietary fish oil supplementation. J. Anim. Sci. 71:1841-1847.
31. Fu, W., T. E. Haynes, R. Kohli, J. Hu, W. Shi, T. E. Spencer, R. J. Carroll, C. J. Meininger and G. Wu. 2005. Dietary supplementation with L-arginine reduces fat mass in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. J. Nutr. 135:714-721.
32. Fumarola, C., S. La Monica and G. G. Guidotti. 2005. Amino acid signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway: Role of glutamine and of cell shrinkage. J. Cell. Physiol. 204:155-165.
33. Gao, H., T. E. Spencer, G. Wu, G. A. Johnson and P. W. Bazer. 2006. mTOR signaling mechanisms in the ovine uterus. Biol. Reprod. Special Issue p. 123.
34. Grimble, R. F. 1998. Modification of inflammatory aspects of immune function by nutrients. Nutr. Res. 18:1297-1317.
35. Grimble, R. F. 2001. Nutritional modulation of immune function. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 60:389-397.
36. Ha, E. M., C. T. Ch, Y. S. Bae and W. J. Lee. 2005. A direct role for dual oxidase in Drosophila gut immunity. Science 310:847-850.
37. Harris, W. S., W. E. Connor and S. L. Lindsey. 1984. Will dietary ώ-3 fatty acids change composition of human milk? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40:780-785.
38. Hornstra, G 2000. Essential fatty acids in mothers and their neonates. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:12628-12698.
39. Innis, S. M. 1991. Essential fatty acids in growth and development. Prog. Lipid Res. 30:39-103.
40. Innis, S. M. and S. L. Elias. 2003. Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:473-478.
41. Ji, F., G Wu, J. R. Blanton and S. W. Kim. 2005. Weight and compositional changes in pregnant gilts and its implication to nutrition. J. Anim. Sci. 83:366-375.
42. Jobgen, W. S., S. K. Fried, W. J. Fu, C. J. Meininger and G. Wu. 2006. Regulatory role for the arginine-nitric oxide pathway in energy-substrate metabolism. J. Nutr. Biochem. 17:571-588.
43. Kim, S. W. and R. A. Easter. 2003. Amino acid utilization for reproduction in sows. Page 203-222 in Amino Acids in Animal Nutrition. J. P. F. D'Mello, ed. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
44. Kim, S. W., G. Wu and D. H. Baker. 2005. Amino acid nutrition of breeding sows during gestation and lactation. Pig News Info. CABI. 26:89N-99N.
45. Kim, S. W., L. E. Hulbert, H. A. Rachuonyo and J. J. McGlone. 2004. Relative availability of iron in mined humic substances for weanling pigs. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 17:1266-1270.
46. Kim, S. W., R. L. McPherson and G. Wu. 2004. Dietary arginine supplementation enhances the growth of milk-fed young piglets. J. Nutr. 134:625-630.
47. Kim, S. W., R. D. Mateo, G. Wu, J. A. Carroll and I. Shinzato. 2006. Dietary L-arginine supplementation affects immune status of pregnant gilts. FASEB J. A266.1
48. Kim, S. W., R. L. McPherson and G Wu. 2004a. Dietary arginine supplementation enhances the immune status of milk-fed young pigs. FASEB J. 18:A378.
49. Kim, S. W., R. L. McPherson and G. Wu. 2004b. Dietary arginine supplementation enhances the growth of milk-fed young pigs. J. Nutr. 134:625-630.
50. Kwon, H., T. E. Spencer, F. W. Bazer and G. Wu. 2003. Developmental changes of amino acids in ovine fetal fluids. Biol. Reprod. 68:1813-1820.
51. Maclennan, P. A., K. Smith, B. Weryk, P. W. Watt and M. J. Rennie. 1988. Inhibition of protein breakdown by glutamine in perfused rat skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett. 237:133-136.
52. Maclennan, P. A., R. A. Brown and M. J. Rennie. 1987. A positive relationship between protein synthetic rate and intracellular glutamine concentration in perfused rat skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett. 215:187-191.
53. Martin, P. M., A. E. Sutherland and L. J. Van Winkle. 2003. Amino acid transport regulates blastocyst implantation. Biol. Reprod. 69:1101-1108.
54. Mateo, R. D., G. Wu, J. A. Carroll, I. Shinzato and S. W. Kim. 2006. Dietary L-arginine supplementation improves pregnancy outcome in gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 84(Suppl. 2):7-8.
55. Mattos, R., C. R. Staples and W. W. Thatcher. 2000. Effects of dietary fatty acids on reproduction in ruminants. Rev. Reprod. 5:38-45.
56. McCowen, K. C. and B. R. Bistrian. 2003. Immunonutrition: Problematic or problem solving? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:764-770.
57. McEntee W. J., and T. J. Cook. 1991. Serotonin, memory and the aging brain. Psychopharmacol. 103:143-149.
58. McPherson, R. L., F. Ji, G. Wu and S. W. Kim. 2004. Fetal growth and compositional changes of fetal tissues in the pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 82:2534-2540.
59. Meijer, A. J. and P. F. Dubbelhuis. 2004. Amino acid signaling and the integration of metabolism. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 313:397-403.
60. Melchior, D., N. Le Floc'h and B. Seve. 2003. Effect of chronic lung inflammation on tryptophan metabolism in piglets. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 527:359-362.
61. Muskiet, F. A. J., M. R. Fokkema, A. Schaafsma, E. R. Boersma, and M. A. Crawford. 2004. Is decahexaenoic acid (DHA) essential?: Lessons from DHA status regulation, our ancient diet, edpidemiology and randomized controlled trials. J. Nutr. 134:183-186.
62. Newsholme, P., L. Brennnan, B. Rubi and P. Maechler. 2005. New insights into amino acid metabolism, beta-cell function and diabetes. Clin. Sci. 108:185-194.
63. Olsen, S. F., J. D. Sorensen, N. J. Secher, M. Hedegaard, T. B. Hentiksen, H. S. Hansen and A. Grant. 1992. Randomised controlled trial of effect of fish-oil supplementation on pregnancy duration. Lancet 25:1003-1007.
64. Owens, S. and S. M. Innis. 1998. Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid prevent a decrease in dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmitter in frontal cortex caused by a linoleic and α-linolenic acid deficient diet in formula fed piglets. J.Nutr. 129:2088-2093.
65. Parrybillings, M., J. Evans, P. C. Calder and E. A. Newsholme. 1990. Does glutamine contribute to immunosuppression after major burns? Lancet 336:523-525.
66. Platten, M., P. P. Ho, S. Youssef, P. Fontoura, H. Garren, E. M. Hur, R. Gupta, L. Y. Lee, B. A. Kidd, W. H. Robinson, R. A. Sobel, M. L. Selley and L. Steinman. 2005. Treatment of autoimmune neuroinflammation with a synthetic tryptophan metabolite. Sci. 310:850-855.
67. Ramsay, T. G., J. Karousis, M. E. White and C. K. Wolverton. 1991. Fatty acid metabolism by the porcine placenta. J. Anim. Sci. 69:3645-3654.
68. Rice, R. 1999. Focus on omega-3. Ingred. Health Nutr. 2:11-15.
69. Robinson, D. R., L. L. Xu, S. Tateno, M. Guo and R. B. Colvin. 1993. Suppression of autoimmune disease by dietary n-3 fatty acids. J. Lipid Res. 34:1435-1444.
70. Rooke, J. A., A. G. Sinclair and M. Ewen. 2001a. Changes in piglet composition at birth in response to increasing maternal intake of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are nonlinear. Br. J. Nutr. 86:461-470.
71. Rooke, J. A., A. G. Sinclair and S. A. Edwards. 2001b. Feeding tuna oil to the sow at different times during pregnancy has different effects on piglet long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition at birth and subsequent growth. Br. J. Nutr. 86:21-30.
72. Rooke, J. A., A. G. Sinclair, S. A. Edwards, R. Cordoba, S. Pkiyachi, P. C. Penny, P. Penny, A. M. Finch and G. W. Horgan. 2001e. The effect of feeding salmon oil to sows throughout pregnancy on pre-weaning mortality of piglets. Anim. Sci. 73:489-500.
73. Rooke, J. A., I. M. Bland and S. A. Edwards. 1998. Effect of feeding tuna oil or soybean oil as supplements to sow in late pregnancy on piglet tissue composition and viability. Br. J. Nutr. 80:273-280.
74. Rooke, J. A., M. Shanks and S. A. Edwards. 2000. Effect of offering maize, linseed or tuna oils throughout pregnancy and lactation on sow and piglet tissue composition and piglet performance. Anim. Sci. 71:289-299.
75. Sastry, P. S. 1985. Lipids of nervous tissue: composition and metabolism. Prog. Lipid Res. 24:69-176.
76. Self, J. T., T. E. Spencer, G. A. Johnson, J. Hu, F. W. Bazer and G. Wu. 2004. Glutamine synthesis in the developing porcine placenta. Biol. Reprod. 70:1444-1451.
77. Shi, W., C. J. Meininger, T. E. Haynes, K. Hatakeyama and G. Wu. 2004. Regulation of tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis and bioavailability in endothelial cells. Cell Biochem. Biophys. 41:415-433.
78. Simopoulos, A. P. 1991. Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54:438-463.
79. Spencer, J. D., L. Wilson, S. K. Webel, R. L. Moser and D. M. Webel. 2004. Effect of feeding protected n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Fertilium™) on litter size in gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 82 (Suppl. 1):211(Abstr.).
80. Stead, L. M., J. T. Brosnan, M. E. Brosnan, D. E. Vance and R. L. Jacobs. 2006. Is it time to reevaluate methyl balance in humans? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83:5-10.
81. Taugbol, O., T. Framstad and K. Saarem. 1993. Supplements of cod liver oil to lactating sows. Influence on milk fatty acid composition and growth performance of piglets. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A. 40:437-443.
82. Thulin, A. J., G. L. Allee, D. L. Harmon and D. L. Davis. 1989. Utero-placental transfer of octanoic, palmitic and linoleic acids during late gestation in gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 67:738-745.
83. Tischler, M. E., M. Desautels and A. L. Goldberg. 1982. Does leucine, leucyl-transfer RNA, or some metabolite of leucine regulate protein synthesis and degradation in skeletal and cardiac muscle? J. Biol. Chem. 257:1613-1621.
84. Trottier, N. L. and L. J. Johnston. 2001. Feeding gilts during development and sows during gestation and lactation. Page 725-769 in Swine Nutrition. 2nd (Ed. A. J. Lewis and L. L. Southern), CRC Press, New York.
85. Trottier, N. L., C. F. Shipley and R. A. Easter. 1997. Plasma amino acid uptake by the mammary gland of the lactating sow. J. Anim. Sci. 75:1266-1278.
86. Turek, J. J., I. A. Schoenlein, B. A. Watkins, W. G. Van Alstine, L. K. Clark and K. Knox. 1996. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate responses of pigs to mycoplasma hyopneumonia infection. J. Nutr. 126:1541-1548.
87. Uauy, R. and C. Castillo. 2003. Lipid requirement of infants: Implications for nutrient composition of fortified complementary foods. J. Nutr. 133:29628-29728.
88. Watford, M. and G. Wu. 2005. Glutamine metabolism in uricotelic species: variation in skeletal muscle glutamine synthetase, glutaminase, glutamine levels and rates of protein synthesis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B. 140:607-614.
89. Webel, S. K., E. R. Otto-Tice, R. L. Moster and D. E. Orr, Jr. 2004. Effect of feeding duration of protected n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (Fertilium™) on litter size and embryo survival in sows. J. Anim. Sci. 82(Suppl. 1):212(Abstr).
90. Webel, S. K., E. R. Otto, D. M. Webel, R. L. Moser, J. D. Spencer and D. E. Orr. 2003. Effect of protected n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Fertilium™) on litter size in sows. J. Anim. Sci. 81 (Suppl. 1):18(Abstr.).
91. Wu, G. 1996. Effects of concanavalin A and phorbol myristate acetate on glutamine metabolism and proliferation of porcine intraepithelial lymphocytes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 114A:363-368.
92. Wu, G. 1997. Synthesis of citrulline and arginine from proline in enterocytes of postnatal pigs. Am. J. Physiol. 272:01382-G1390.
93. Wu, G. and C. J. Meininger. 2002. Regulation of nitric oxide synthesis by dietary factors. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 22:61-86.
94. Wu, G. and D. A. Knabe. 1994. Free and protein-bound amino acids in sow's colostrums and milk. J. Nutr. 124:415-424.
95. Wu, G. and J. R. Thompson. 1990. The effect of glutamine on protein turnover in chick skeletal muscle in vitro. Biochem. J. 265:593-598.
96. Wu, G. and J. T. Self. 2005. Amino acids: metabolism and functions. In: Encyclopedia of Animal Science (Ed. W. G. Pond and A. W. Bell). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp. 9-12.
97. Wu, G. and S. M. Morris, Jr. 1998. Arginine metabolism: nitric oxide and beyond. Biochem. J. 336:1-17.
98. Wu, G, C. J. Field and E. B. Marliss. 1991. Glutamine and glucose metabolism in rat splenocytes and mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 260:E141-E147.
99. Wu, G. D. A. Knabe and S. W. Kim. 2004c. Arginine nutrition in neonatal pigs. J. Nutr. 134:27838-23908.
100. Wu, G., D. A. Knabe, N. E. Flynn, W. Yan and S. P. Flynn. 1996b. Arginine degradation in developing porcine enterocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 271:0913-0919.
101. Wu, G., F. W. Bazer, J. Hu, G. A. Johnson and T. E. Spencer. 2005. Polyamine synthesis from proline in the developing porcine placenta. Biol. Reprod. 72:842-850.
102. Wu, G, F. W. Bazer, T. A. Cudd, C. J. Meininger and T. E. Spencer. 2004a. Maternal nutrition and fetal development. J. Nutr. 134:2169-2172.
103. Wu, G., F. W. Bazer, J. M. Wallace and T. E. Spencer. 2006. Intrauterine growth retardation: Implications for the animal sciences. J. Anim. Sci. 84:2316-2337.
104. Wu, G., F. W. Bazer, W. Tuo and S. P. Flynn. 1996a. Unusual abundance of arginine and ornithine in porcine allantoic fluid. Biol. Reprod. 54:1261-1265.
105. Wu, G, J. R. Thompson and V. E. Baracos. 1991. Glutamine metabolism in skeletal muscle from the broiler chick (Gallus domesticus) and the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus). Biochem. J. 274:769-774.
106. Wu, G., L. A. Jaeger, F. W., Bazer and J. M. Rhoads. 2004b. Arginine deficiency in premature infants: biochemical mechanisms and nutritional implications. J. Nutr. Biochem. 15:442-451.
107. Wu, G., N. E. Flynn, S. P. Flynn, C. A. Jolly and P. K. Davis. 1999. Dietary protein or arginine deficiency impairs constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthesis by young rats. J. Nutr. 129:1347-1354.
108. Wu, G., S. A. Meier and D. A. Knabe. 1996c. Dietary glutamine supplementation prevents jejunal atrophy in weaned pigs. J. Nutr. 126:2578-2584.
109. Wu, G., Y. Z. Fang, S. Yang, J. R. Lupton and N. D. Turner. 2004d. Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. J. Nutr. 134:489-492.
110. Xia, Y., H. Y. Wen, M. E. Young, P. H. Guthrie, H. Taegtmeyer and R. E. Kellems. 2003. Mammalian target of rapamycin and protein kinase A signaling mediate the cardiac transcriptional response to glutamine. J. Biol. Chem. 278:13143-13150.
111. Zhou, R. Y., J. Peng, Z. L. Liu and Z. F. Fang. 2006. Effects of biocom as a replacement of glutamine on performance and blood biochemical indexes of early weaned piglets. Asian-Aust. J.Anim. Sci. 19:872-876.
112. Zijlstra, R. T., K-Y. Whang, R. A. Easter and J. Odle. 1996. Effect of feeding a milk replacer to early-weaned pigs on growth, body composition, and small intestinal morphology, compared with suckled littermates. J. Anim. Sci. 74:2948-2959.
113. Zimmer, L., S. Delion-Vancassel, G Durand, D. Guilloteau, S. Bodard, J. C. Besnard and S. Chalon. 2000. Modification of dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accubens of rats deficient in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J. Lipid Res. 41:32-40.