Is Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Essential? Lessons from DHA Status Regulation, Our Ancient Diet, Epidemiology and Randomized Controlled Trials

Journal of Nutrition

Volumn 134, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 183-186

  Muskiet, Frits A J ^a   Fokkema, M Rebecca ^a   Schaafsma, Anne ^b   Boersma, E Rudy ^c   Crawford, Michael A ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^b FRIESLANDCAMPINA   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN   (Netherlands)

^d LONDON METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARACHIDONIC ACID; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID;

CLINICAL RESEARCH; DIET; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; HUMAN; METABOLIC REGULATION; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; REVIEW;

EID: 0346095554     PISSN: 00223166     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jn/134.1.183     Document Type: Review

References (50)

1. Simopoulos, A. P. (1999) Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70: 560S-569S.
2. Simopoulos, A. P. (1999) Genetic variation and nutrition. Nutr. Rev. 57: S10-S19.
3. Price, P. T., Nelson, C. M. & Clarke, S. D. (2000) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene expression. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11: 3-7.
4. Horton, J. D. & Shimomura, I. (1999) Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins: activators of cholesterol and fatty acid biosynthesis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10: 143-150.
5. Michalik, L., Desvergne, B. & Wahli, W. (2003) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors beta/delta: emerging roles for a previously neglected third family member. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 14: 129-135.
6. Fokkema, M. R., Brouwer, D.A.J., Hasperhoven, M. B., Hettema, Y., Bemelmans, W.J.E. & Muskiet, F.A.J. (2000) Polyunsaturated fatty acid status of Dutch vegans and omnivores. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 63: 279-285.
7. Smit, E. N., Martini, I. A., Mulder, H., Boersma, E. R. & Muskiet, F. A. (2002) Estimated biological variation of the mature human milk fatty acid composition. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 66: 549-555.
8. Smit, E. N., Koopmann, M., Boersma, E. R. & Muskiet, F. A. (2000) Effect of supplementation of arachidonic acid (AA) or a combination of AA plus docosahexaenoic acid on breastmilk fatty acid composition. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 62: 335-340.
9. Nelson, G. J., Schmidt, P. C., Bartolini, G., Kelley, D. S. & Kyle, D. (1997) The effect of dietary arachidonic acid on platelet function, platelet fatty acid composition, and blood coagulation in humans. Lipids 32: 421-425.
10. Nelson, G. J., Schmidt, P. C., Bartolini, G., Kelley, D. S., Phinney, S. D., Kyle, D., Silbermann, S. & Schaefer, E. J. (1997) The effect of dietary arachidonic acid on plasma lipoprotein distributions, apoproteins, blood lipid levels, and tissue fatty acid composition in humans. Lipids 32: 427-433.
11. Harris, W. S., Connor, W. E. & Lindsey, S. (1984) Will dietary omega-3 fatty acids change the composition of human milk? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40: 780-785.
12. Nelson, G. J., Schmidt, P. C., Bartolini, G. L., Kelley, D. S. & Kyle, D. (1997) The effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on plasma lipoproteins and tissue fatty acid composition in humans. Lipids 32: 1137-1146.
13. Vidgren, H. M., Agren, J. J., Schwab, U., Rissanen, T., Hanninen, O. & Uusitupa, M. I. (1997) Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during dietary supplementation with fish, fish oil, and docosahexaenoic acid-rich oil among healthy young men. Lipids 32: 697-705.
14. Horrobin, D. F., Fokkema, M. R. & Muskiet, F.A.J. (2003) The effects on plasma, red cell and platelet fatty acids of taking 12 g/day of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate for 16 months: dihomogammalinolenic, arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids and relevance to Inuit metabolism. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 68: 301-304.
15. Innis, S. M. (1991) Essential fatty acids in growth and development. Prog. Lipid Res. 30: 39-103.
16. Burdge, G. C., Jones, A. E. & Wootton, S. A. (2002) Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. Br. J. Nutr. 88: 355-363.
17. Smit, E. N., Fokkema, M. R., Boersma, E. R. & Muskiet, F. A. (2003) Higher erythrocyte 22:6n-3 and 22:5n-6, and lower 22:5n-3 suggest higher delta-4-desaturation capacity in women of childbearing age. Br. J. Nutr. 89: 739-740.
18. Burdge, G. C. & Wootton, S. A. (2002) Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Br. J. Nutr. 88: 411-420.
19. Hornstra, G. (2000) Essential fatty acids in mothers and their neonates. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71: 1262S-1269S.
20. Forsyth, J. S. & Carlson, S. E. (2001) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition: effects on infant development. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 4: 123-126.
21. Makrides, M., Neumann, M. A., Jeffrey, B., Lien, E. L. & Gibson, R. A. (2000) A randomized trial of different ratios of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid in the diet of term infants: effects on visual function and growth. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71: 120-129.
22. Brenna, J. T. (2002) Efficiency of conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to long chain n-3 fatty acids in man. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 5: 127-132.
23. Suzuki, H., Manabe, S., Wada, O. & Crawford, M. A. (1997) Rapid incorporation of docosahexaenoic acid from dietary sources into brain microsomal, synaptosomal and mitochondrial membranes in adult mice. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 67: 272-278.
24. Crawford, M. A. & Sinclair, A. J. (1972) The limitations of whole tissue analysis to define linolenic acid deficiency. J. Nutr. 102: 1315-1321.
25. Fokkema, M. R., Brouwer, D.A.J., Hasperhoven, M. B., Martini, I. A. & Muskiet, F.A.J. (2000) Short-term supplementation of low-dose gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or GLA plus ALA does not augment LCP omega 3 status of Dutch vegans to an appreciable extent. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 63: 287-292.
26. Gibson, R. A. & Sinclair, A. J. (1981) Are Eskimos obligate carnivores? Lancet 1: 1100.
27. Hacia, J. G. (2001) Genome of the apes. Trends Genet. 17: 637-645.
28. Ebersberger, I., Metzler, D., Schwarz, C. & Paabo, S. (2002) Genome-wide comparison of DNA sequences between humans and chimpanzees. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 70: 1490-1497.
29. Horrobin, D. F. (2001) The Madness of Adam and Eve. How Schizophrenia Shaped Humanity. Cox & Wyman Ltd., Reading, Berkshire (UK).
30. Kurlak, L. O. & Stephenson, T. J. (1999) Plausible explanations for effects of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) on neonates. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 80: F148-F154.
31. Broadhurst, C. L., Wang, Y., Crawford, M. A., Cunnane, S. C., Parkington, J. E. & Schmidt, W. F. (2002) Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early African Homo sapiens. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 131: 653-673.
32. Gibbons, A. (2002) Becoming human. In search of the first hominids. Science 295: 1214-1219.
33. Templeton, A. (2002) Out of Africa again and again. Nature 416: 45-51.
34. Gibbons, A. (2002) American Association of Physical Anthropologists meeting. Humans' head start: new views of brain evolution. Science 296: 835-837.
35. Freeman, M. P. (2000) Omega-3 fatty acids in psychiatry: a review. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 12: 159-165.
36. Hibbeln, J. R. (2002) Seafood consumption, the DHA content of mothers' milk and prevalence rates of postpartum depression: a cross-national, ecological analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 69: 15-29.
37. Simopoulos, A. P. (2002) Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 21: 495-505.
38. Kris-Etherton, P. M., Harris, W. S. & Appel, L. J. (2003) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23: e20-e30.
39. de Lorgeril, M., Salen, P., Martin, J. L., Monjaud, I., Delaye, J. & Mamelle, N. (1999) Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 99: 779-785.
40. GISSI-Preventione Investigators. (1999) Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 354: 447-455.
41. Nemets, B., Stahl, Z. & Belmaker, R. H. (2002) Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 159: 477-479.
42. Key, T. J., Fraser, G. E., Thorogood, M., Appleby, P. N., Beral, V., Reeves, G., Burr, M. L., Chang-Claude, J., Frentzel-Beyme, R., Kuzma, J. W., Mann, J. & McPherson, K. (1999) Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70: 516S-524S.
43. Mezzano, D., Kosiel, K., Martinez, C., Cuevas, A., Panes, O., Aranda, E., Strobel, P., Perez, D. D., Pereira, J., Rozowski, J. & Leighton, F. (2000) Cardiovascular risk factors in vegetarians. Normalization of hyperhomocysteinemia with vitamin B(12) and reduction of platelet aggregation with n-3 fatty acids. Thromb. Res. 100: 153-160.
44. Conquer, J. A. & Holub, B. J. (1996) Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects. J. Nutr. 126: 3032-3039.
45. Larque, E., Demmelmair, H. & Koletzko, B. (2002) Perinatal supply and metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: importance for the early development of the nervous system. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 967: 299-310.
46. Koletzko, B., Agostoni, C., Carlson, S. E., Clandinin, T., Hornstra, G., Neuringer, M., Uauy, R., Yamashiro, Y. & Willatts, P. (2001) Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and perinatal development. Acta Paediatr. 90: 460-464.
47. Farquharson, J., Cockburn, F., Patrick, W. A., Jamieson, E. C. & Logan, R. W. (1992) Infant cerebral cortex phospholipid fatty-acid composition and diet. Lancet 340: 810-813.
48. Uauy, R. & Mena, P. (2001) Lipids and neurodevelopement. Nutr. Rev. 59: S34-S46.
49. Helland, I. B., Smith, L., Saarem, K., Saugstad, O. D. & Drevon, C. A. (2003) Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 111: e39-e44.
50. Forsyth, J. S., Willatts, P., Agostoni, C., Bissenden, J., Casaer, P. & Boehm, G. (2003) Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infant formula and blood pressure in later childhood: follow up of a randomised controlled trial. BMJ 326: 953.