Olive oil in cancer prevention and progression

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 64, Issue 10 SUPPL. 1, 2006, Pages

  Escrich, Eduard ^a   Ramírez Tortosa, M Carmen ^b   Sánchez Rovira, Pedro ^c   Colomer, Ramon ^d   Solanas, Montserrat ^a   Gaforio, José Juan ^e  

^a UNIVERSITAT AUTÒNOMA DE BARCELONA   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GRANADA   (Spain)

^c Medical Oncology Department   (Spain)

^d CATALAN INSTITUTE OF ONCOLOGY   (Spain)

^e UNIVERSITY OF JAÉN   (Spain)

Author keywords

Cancer; Minor compounds; Oleic acid; Olive oil; Prevention

Indexed keywords

MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; OLEIC ACID; OLIVE OIL;

BREAST CANCER; CANCER; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER PREVENTION; CARCINOGENICITY; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COLORECTAL CANCER; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; MUTAGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PROSTATE CANCER; REVIEW;

EID: 33750238127     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: 00296643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1301/nr.2006.oct.S40-S52     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Levi F, Lucchini F, Negri E, Boyle P, La Vecchia C. Cancer mortality in Europe, 1990-1994, and an overview of trends from 1955 to 1994. Eur J Cancer. 1999;35:1477-1516.
2. Martínez-González MA, Estruch R. Mediterranean diet, antioxidants and cancer: the need for randomized trials. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2004;13:327-335.
3. Carroll KK. Dietary fats and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53 (4 suppl):1064S-1067S.
4. Miñarro R, Black RJ, Martínez C, et al. Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Spain: Patterns and Trends. IARC Technical Report No. 36. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); 2000.
5. Boring CC, Squires TS, Tong TT, Montgomery S. Cancer Statistics, 1994. CA Cancer J Clin. 1994; 44:7-26.
6. Whittemore AS, Wu-Williams AH, Lee EM, et al. Diet, physical activity, and colorectal cancer among Chinese in North America and China. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1990;82:915-926.
7. Clinton SK, Giovannucci E. Nutrition in the aetiology and prevention of cancer. In: Cancer Medicine, vol. 1. Baltimore, MD: William & Wilkins; 2001:465-494.
8. Committee on Diet and Health. Food and Nutrition Board Commission on Life Sciences National Research Council. Diet and Health. Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989.
9. Kurihara M, Aoki K, Tominaga S. Cancer Mortality Statistics in the World. Nagoya: University of Nagoya Press; 1984.
10. Junshi C, Campbell TC, Junyao L, Peto R. Diet, Life-style and Mortality in China. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1990.
11. Ferlay J, Bray F, Sankila R, Parkin DM. EUCAN: Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence in the European Union 1998, version 5.0. IARC Cancer Base No. 4. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); 1999.
12. Black RJ, Bray F, Ferlay J, Parkin DM. Cancer incidence and mortality in the European Union: cancer registry data and estimates of national incidence for 1990. Eur J Cancer. 1997;33:1075-1107.
13. Trichopoulos A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breast cancer risk in Greece. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:110-116.
14. Stoneham M, Goldacre M, Seagroatt V, Gill L. Olive oil, diet and colorectal cancer: an ecological study and a hypothesis. J Epidemiol Comm Health. 2000;54:756-760.
15. Boyd NF, Martin LJ, Noffel MM, Lockwood GA, Trichler DL. A meta-analysis of studies of dietary fat and breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer. 1993;68: 627-636.
16. Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer.: a eight year follow up. JAMA. 1992;268:2037-2044.
17. Jain M, Miller AB, To T. Premorbid diet and the prognosis of women with breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1994;86:1390-1397.
18. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Relation of meat, fat and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1664-1672.
19. Giovannucci I, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GT, Ascherio A, Willett W. Intake of fat, meat and fiber in relation to risk of colon cancer in men. Cancer Res. 1994;54:2390-2397.
20. Goldbohm RA, van der Brandt PA, van't Veer P, et al. A prospective cohort study on the relation between meat consumption and the risk of colon cancer. Cancer Res. 1994;54:718-723.
21. Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Yaun SS, et al. Intake of fruits and vegetables and risk of breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. JAMA. 2001;285:769-776.
22. Bautista D, Obrador A, Moreno V, et al. Ki-ras mutation modifies the protective effect of dietary monounsaturated fat and calcium on sporadic colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:57-61.
23. Braga C, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, et al. Olive oil, other seasoning fats, and the risk of colorectal carcinoma. Cancer. 1998;82:448-453.
24. Martin-Moreno JM, Willett P, Gorgojo L, et al. Dietary fat, olive oil intake and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 1994;58:774-780.
25. Landa MC, Frago N, Tres A. Diet and risk of breast cancer in Spain. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1994;3:313-320.
26. La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, et al. Olive oil, other dietary fats, and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6:545-550.
27. Bingham S, Riboli E. Diet and cancer, the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Nat Rev Cancer. 2004;4:206-215.
28. Kushi L, Giovannucci E. Dietary fat and cancer. Am J Med. 2002;113(suppl):63S-70S.
29. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999.
30. Jaruga P, Zastawny TH, Skokowski J, Dizdaroglu M, Olinski R. Oxidative DNA base damage and antioxidant enzyme activities in human lung cancer. FEBS Lett. 1994;341:59-64.
31. Malins DC, Holmes EH, Polissar NL, Gunselman SJ. The aetiology of breast cancer: characteristic alteration in hydroxyl radical induce DNA base lesions during oncogenesis with potential for evaluating incidence risk. Cancer. 1993;71:3036-3043.
32. Askman S. Overview of oxidative stress and cancer. In: Cutler RG, Rodriquez H, eds. Critical Reviews of Oxidative Stress and Aging. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific; 2003:925-954.
33. Evan G, Vousden K. Proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis in cancer. Nature. 2001;411:342-348.
34. Mataix J, Quiles JL, Huertas JR, Battino M, Mañas M. Tissue specific interactions of exercise, dietary fatty acids, and vitamin E in lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Biol Med. 1998;24:511-521.
35. Ramírez-Tortosa MC, Urbano G, López-Jurado M, et al. Extra-virgin more than refined olive oil increases the resistance of LDL to oxidation in free-living men with peripheral vascular disease. J Nutr. 1999;29:2177-2183.
36. Bartsch H, Nair J, Owen RW. Exocyclic DNA adducts as oxidative stress markers in colon carcinogenesis: potential role of lipid peroxidation, dietary fat and antioxidants. Biol Chem. 2002;383: 915-921.
37. Hughes-Fulford M, Chen Y, Tjandrawinata R. Fatty acid regulates gene expression and growth human prostate cancer PC-3 cells. Carcinogenesis. 2001;22:701-707.
38. Verlengia R, Gorjao R, Kanunfre CC, Bordin S, de Lima TM, Curi R. Effect of arachidonic acid on proliferation, cytokine production and pleiotropic gene expression in Jurkat cells: a comparison with oleic acid. Life Sci. 2003;73:2939-2951.
39. Quiles JL, Ramírez-Tortosa MC, Ibáñez S, et al. Vitamin E supplementation increases the stability and the in vivo antioxidant capacity of refined olive oil. Free Radic Res. 1999;31(suppl):S129-S135.
40. Stavric B. Role of chemopreventers in human diet. Clin Biochem. 1994;27:319-332.
41. Quiles JL, Farquharson AJ, Simpson DK, Grant I, Wahle KW. Olive oil phenolics: effects on DNA oxidation and redox enzyme mRNA in prostate cells. Br J Nutr. 2002;88:225-234.
42. Rao CV, Newmark HL, Reddy BS. Chemopreventive effect of squalene on colon cancer. Carcinogenesis. 1998;19:287-290.
43. Ramírez-Tortosa C, Andersen OM, Gardener PT, et al. Antocyanin-rich extract decreases indices of lipid peroxidation and DNA damage in vitamin E-depleted rats. Free Radic Biol Med. 2001;31:1033-1037.
44. Bartsch H, Nair J, Owen RW. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and cancers of the breast and colorectum: emerging evidence for their role as risk modifiers. Carcinogenesis. 1999;26:2209-2218.
45. World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research; 1997.
46. Escrich E, Solanas M, Soler M, Ruiz De Villa MC, Sánchez JA, Segura R. Dietary polyunsaturated n-6 lipids effects on the growth and fatty acid composition of rat mammary tumors. J Nutr Biochem. 2001;12:536-549.
47. Moral R, Solanas M, García G, Colomer R, Escrich E. Modulation of EGFR and neu expression by n-6-and n-9 high fat diets in experimental mammary adenocarcinomas. Oncol Reports. 2003;10:1417-1424.
48. Solanas M, Moral R, Escrich E. The stimulating effect of a high-fat n-6 polyunsaturated diet on rat DMBA-induced mammary tumors is not related to changes in c-Ha-ras1 mRNA tumor expression. Nutr Res. 2001;21:1261-1273.
49. Solanas M, Hurtado A, Costa I, et al. Effects of high olive oil diet on the clinical behavior and histopathological features of rat DMBA-induced mammary tumors compared with a high corn oil diet. Int J Oncol. 2002;21:745-753.
50. Kenny FS, Gee, JM, Nicholson RI, et al. Effect of dietary GLA+/-tamoxifen on the growth, ER expression and fatty acid profile of ER-positive human breast cancer xenografts. Int J Cancer. 2001;92:342-347.
51. Ip C. Review of the effects of trans fatty acids, oleic acid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, and conjugated linoleic acid on mammary carcinogenesis in animals. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(suppl 6):S1523-S1529.
52. Cave WT Jr. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in rodent models of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1997;46:239-246.
53. Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: a review. Cancer Res. 1997;57:3979-3988.
54. Lee MM, Lin SS. Dietary fat and breast cancer. Ann Rev Nutr. 2000;20:221-248.
55. Costa I, Solanas M, Escrich E. Histopathologic characterization of mammary neoplastic lesions induced with 7,12-dimethylbenz(α)antracene in the rat. A comparative analysis with human breast tumours. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2002;126:915-927.
56. Costa I, Moral R, Solanas M, Escrich E. High-fat corn oil diet promotes the development of high histologic grade rat DMBA-induced mammary adenocarcinomas, while high olive oil diet does not. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2004;86:225-235.
57. Galli C, Visioli F. Antioxidant and other activities of phenolics in olives/olive oil, typical components of the Mediterranean diet. Lipids. 1999;34(suppl): S23-S26.
58. Smith TJ, Yang GY, Seril DN, Liao J, Kim S. Inhibition of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone-induced lung tumorigenesis by dietary olive oil and squalene. Carcinogenesis. 1999;19:703-706.
59. Rao CV, Hirose Y, Indranie C, Reddy BS. Modulation of experimental colon tumorigenesis by types and amounts of dietary fatty acids. Cancer Res. 2001;61:1927-1933.
60. Schwartz B, Birk Y, Raz A, Madar Z. Nutritional-pharmacological combinations: a novel approach to reducing colon cancer incidence. Eur J Nutr. 2004;43:221-229.
61. Dennis LK, Snetselaar LG, Smith BJ, Stewart RE, Robbins ME. Problems with the assessment of dietary fat in prostate cancer studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160:436-444.
62. Kolonel LN, Nomura AM, Cooney RV. Dietary fat and prostate cancer: current status. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:414-428.
63. Venkateswaran V, Fleshner NE, Sugar LM, Klotz LH. Antioxidants block prostate cancer in Lady transgenic mice. Cancer Res. 2004;64:5891-5896.
64. Owen RW, Giacosa A, Hull WE, et al. Olive-oil consumption and health: the possible role of antioxidants. Lancet Oncol. 2000;1:107-112.
65. Reyes N, Reyes I, Tiwari R, Geliebter J. Effect on linoleic acid on proliferation and gene expression in the breast cancer cell line T47D. Cancer Lett. 2004;209:25-35.
66. Hulbert AJ, Turner N, Storlien LH, Else PL. Dietary fats and membrane function: implications for metabolism and disease. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2005;80:155-169.
67. Jump DB. Fatty acid regulation of gene transcription. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2004;41:41-78.
68. Ma DWL, Seo J, Davidson LA, et al. n-3 PUFA alter caveolae lipid composition and resident protein localization in mouse colon. FASEB J. 2004;18:1040-1042.
69. Stoll BA. n-3 fatty acids and lipid peroxidation in breast cancer inhibition. Br J Nutr. 2002;87:193-198.
70. Clandinin MT, Cheema S, Field CJ, Garg ML, Venkatraman J, Clandinin TR. Dietary fat: exogenous determination of membrane structure and cell function. FASEB J. 1991;5:2761-2768.
71. Sumida C, Graber R., Nunez E. Role of fatty acids in signal transduction: modulators and messengers. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1993;48:117-122.
72. Escrich E, Solanas M, Moral R. Olive oil and other dietary lipids in cancer: experimental approaches. In: Quiles JL, Ramírez-Tortosa MC, Yaqoob P, eds. Olive Oil and Health. Oxfordshire: CABI Publishing; 2006.
73. Larsson S, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Wolk A. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: a review of potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:935-945.
74. Newmark HL. Squalene, olive oil, and cancer risk. Review and hypothesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999; 889:193-203.
75. Fernandes G, Venkatraman JT. Modulation of breast cancer growth in nude mice by n-3 lipids. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1991;66:488-503.
76. Wu B, Iwakiri R, Ootani A, et al. Dietary corn oil promotes colon cancer by inhibiting mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in azoxymethane-treated rats. Exp Biol Med. 2004;229:1017-1025.
77. Davidson LA, Nguyen DV, Hokanson RM, et al. Chemopreventive n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reprogram genetic signatures during colon cancer initiation and progression in the rat. Cancer Res. 2004;64:6797-6804.
78. Escrich E, Moral R, García G, Costa I, Sánchez JA, Solanas M. Identification of novel differentially expressed genes by the effect of a high-fat n-6 diet in experimental breast cancer. Mol Carcinogenesis. 2004;40:73-78.
79. Calder PC, Yaqoob P, Thies F, Wallace FA, Miles EA. Fatty acids and lymphocyte functions. Br J Nutr. 2002;87 (suppl 1):S31-S48.
80. Miles EA, Zoubouli P, Calder PC. Differential antiinflammatory effects of phenolic compounds from extra virgin olive oil identified in human whole blood cultures. Nutrition. 2005;21:389-394.
81. Yaqoob P, Knapper JA, Webb DH, Williams CM, Newsholme EA, Calder PC. Effect of olive oil on immune function in middle-aged men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67:129-135.
82. Simonsen NR, Fernandez-Crehuet Navajas J, Martín-Moreno JM, et al. Tissue stores of individual monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer: the EURAMIC study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;68:134-141.
83. Kitts DD. Bioactive substances in food: identification and potential uses. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1994;72:423-434.
84. Correa P, Piazuelo MB, Camargo C. The future of gastric cancer prevention. Gastric Cancer 2004;7: 9-16.
85. Gill Cl, Boyd A, McDermott E, et al. Potential anti-cancer effects of virgin olive oil phenols on colorectal carcinogenesis models in vitro. Int J Cancer. 2005;117:1-7.
86. Menon LG, Kuttan R, and Kuttan G. Inhibition of lung metastasis in mice induced by B16F10 melanoma cells by polyphenolic compounds. Cancer Lett. 1995;95:221-225.
87. Igura K, Ohta T, Kuroda Y, Kaji K. Resveratrol and quercetin inhibit angiogenesis in vitro. Cancer Lett. 2001;171:11-16.
88. Caltagirone S, Rossi C, Poggi A, et al. Flavonoids apigenin and quercetin inhibit melanoma growth and metastatic potential. Int J Cancer. 2000;87:595-600.
89. Avila MA, Velasco JA, Cansado J, and Notario V. Quercetin mediates the down-regulation of mutant p53 in the human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB468. Cancer Res. 1994;54:2424-2428.
90. Ranelletti FO, Maggiano N, Serra FG, et al. Quercetin inhibit p21-Ras expression in human colon cancer cell lines and in primary colorectal tumors. Int J Cancer. 2000;85:438-445.
91. Pouget C, Lauthier F, Simon A, et al. Flavonoids: structural requeriments for antiproliferative activity on breast cancer cells. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2001;11:3095-3097.
92. Tomasetti M, Gellert N, Procopio A, Neuzil J. A vitamin E analogue suppresses malignant mesothelioma in a preclinical model: a future drug against a fatal neoplastic disease? Int J Cancer. 2004;109:641-642.
93. Hakimuddin F, Paliyath G, and Meckling K. Selective cytotoxicity of a red grape wine flavonoid fraction against MCF-7 cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2004;85:65-79.
94. Das B, Yeger H, Baruchel H, Freedman MH, Koren G, Baruchel S. In vitro cytoprotective activity of squalene on a bone marrow versus neuroblastoma model of cisplatin-induced toxicity: implications in cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Cancer. 2003;39:2556-2565.
95. Kampa M, Alexaki VI, Notas G, et al. Antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of selective phenolic acids on T47D human breast cancer cells: potential mechanisms of action. Breast Cancer Res. 2004;6:R63-R74.
96. Fabiani R, De Bartolomeo A, Rosignoli P, Servili M, Montedoro GF, Morozzi G. Cancer chemoprevention by hydroxytyrosol isolated from virgin olive oil through G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2002;11:351-358.
97. Pathak AK, Singh N, Khanna N, Reddy VG, Prassad KN, Kochupillai V. Potentiation of the effect of paclitaxel and carboplatin by antioxidant mixture on human lung cancer H520 cells. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21:416-421.
98. Miller ER, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar E. Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:37-42.
99. Horrobin DF. Unsaturated lipids and cancer. In: Horrobin DF, ed. New Approaches to Cancer Treatment. Edinburgh: Churchill; 1994:1-29.
100. Jiang WG, Bryce RP, Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids: molecular and cellular basis of their anticancer action and clinical implications. Crit Rev Oncol Hemat. 1998;27:179-209.
101. Fearon KC, Falconer JS, Ross JA, et al. An openlabel phase I/II dose escalation study of the treatment of pancreatic cancer using lithium gammalinolenate. Anticancer Res. 1996;6:867-874.
102. Kenny FS, Pinder SE, Ellis IO, et al. Gamma linolenic acid with tamoxifen as primary therapy in breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2000;85:643-648.
103. Plumb JA, Luo W, Kerr DJ. Effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the drug sensitivity of human tumour cell lines resistant to either cisplatin or doxorubicin. Br J Cancer. 1993;67:728-733.
104. Germain E, Chajes V, Cognault S, Lhuillery C, Bougnoux P. Enhancement of doxorubicin cytotoxicity by polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human breast tumor cell line MDA-MB-231: relationship to lipid peroxidation. Int J Cancer. 1998;75: 578-583.
105. Tsai WS, Nagawa H, Muto T. Differential effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on chemosensitivity of NIH3T3 cells and its transformants. Int J Cancer. 1997;70:357-361.
106. Bougnoux P, Chajes V, Germain E, et al. Cytotoxic drug efficacy correlates with adipose tissue docosahexaenoic acid level in locally advanced breast carcinoma. Lipids. 1999;34(suppl):S109.
107. Menéndez JA, Barbacid MM, Montero S, et al. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid and oleic acid on paclitaxel cytotoxicity in human breast cancer cells. Eur J Cancer. 2001;37:402-413.
108. Menéndez JA, Ropero S, Barbacid MM, et al. Synergistic interaction between vinorelbine and gamma-linolenic acid in breast cancer cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2002;72:203-219.
109. Menéndez JA, Ropero S, Lupu R, Colomer R. Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) enhances docetaxel (Taxotere) cytotoxicity in human breast carcinoma cells: Relationship to lipid peroxidation and HER-2/neu expression. Oncol Rep. 2004;11:1241-1252.
110. Menéndez JA, Lupu R, Colomer R. Exogenous supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) synergistically enhances taxane cytotoxicity and downregulates Her-2/neu (c-erbB-2) oncogene expression in human breast cancer cells. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2005;14:263-270.
111. Menéndez JA, Vellon L, Colomer R, Lupu R. Oleic acid, the main monounsaturated fatty acid of olive oil, suppresses Her-2/neu (erbB-2) expression and synergistically enhances the growth inhibitory effects of trastuzumab (Herceptin) in breast cancer cells with Her-2/neu oncogene amplification. Ann Oncol. 2005;16:359-371.
112. Menéndez JA, Colomer R, Lupu R. Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid (18: 3n-6) is a selective estrogen-response modulator in human breast cancer cells: gamma-linolenic acid antagonizes estrogen receptor-dependent transcriptional activity, transcriptionally represses estrogen receptor expression and synergistically enhances tamoxifen and ICI 182,780 (Faslodex) efficacy in human breast cancer cells. Int J Cancer. 2004;109:949-954.
113. Reddy BS, Patlolla JM, Simi B, Wang SH, Rao CV. Prevention of colon cancer by low doses of celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, administered in diet rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cancer Res. 2005; 65:8022-8027.