The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: Following a trail of evidence from cradle to grave

Development and Psychopathology

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 501-527

  Marenco, Stefano ^b   Weinberger, Daniel R ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; BRAIN; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; HUMAN; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PHYSIOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGY; RADIOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

ADOLESCENT; BRAIN; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MOTOR SKILLS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 0034207818     PISSN: 09545794     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954579400003138     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Achte, K. A., Hillbom, E., & Aalberg, V. (1969). Psychoses following war brain injuries. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 45, 1-18.
2. Akbarian, S., Bunney, W. E., Potkin, S. G., Wigal, S. B., Hagman, J. O., Sandman, C. A., & Jones, E. G. (1993). Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 169-177.
3. Akbarian, S., Kim, J. J., Potkin, S. G., Hetrick, W. P., Bunney, W. E., & Jones, E. G. (1996). Maldistribution of interstitial neurons in prefrontal white matter of the brains of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 425-436.
4. Akbarian, S., Vinuela, A., Kim, J. J., Potkin, S. G., Bunney, W. E., & Jones, E. G. (1993). Distorted distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase neurons in temporal lobe of schizophrenics implies anomalous cortical development. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 178-187.
5. Akil, M., & Lewis, D. A. (1997). Cytoarchitecture of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1010-1012.
6. Akil, M., & Weinberger, D. R. (in press). Neuropathology of schizophrenia and the neurodevelopmental model. In P. J. Harrison & G. W. Roberts (Eds.), Neuropathology of schizophrenia. New York: Oxford University Press.
7. Amminger, G. P., Pape, S., Rock, D., Roberts, S. A., Ott, S. L., Squires-Wheeler, E., Kestenbaum, C., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1999). Relationship between childhood behavioral disturbance and later schizophrenia in the New York High-Risk Project. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 525-530.
8. Anderson, S. A., Volk, D. W., & Lewis, D. A. (1996). Increased density of microtubule associated protein 2-immunoreactive neurons in the prefrontal white matter of schizophrenic subjects. Schizophrenia Research, 19, 111-119.
9. Annett, M. (1997). Schizophrenia and autism considered as the products of an agnosic right shift gene. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 2, 195-240.
10. Aradt, S., Andreasen, N. C., Flaum, M., Miller, D., & Nopoulos, P. (1995). A longitudinal-study of symptom dimensions in schizophrenia - Prediction and patterns of change. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 352-360.
11. Arnold, S. E. (1999). Cognition and neuropathology in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99, 41-50.
12. Arnold, S. E., Hyman, B. T., Vanhoesen, G. W., & Damasio, A. R. (1991). Some cytoarchitectural abnormalities of the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 625-632.
13. Aylward, E., Walker, E., & Bettes, B. (1984). Intelligence in schizophrenia: Meta-analysis of the research. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 10, 430-459.
14. Barbeau, D., Liang, J. J., Robitaille, Y., Quirion, R., & Srivastava, L. K. (1995). Decreased expression of the embryonic form of the neural cell-adhesion molecule in schizophrenic brains. PNAS, 92, 2785-2789.
15. Barr, C. E., Mednick, S. A., & Munkjorgensen, P. (1990). Exposure to influenza epidemics during gestation and adult schizophrenia - A 40-year study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 869-874.
16. Bender, L. (1947). Childhood schizophrenia: Clinical study of 100 schizophrenic children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17, 40-56.
17. Benes, F. M., Sorensen, I., & Bird, E. D. (1991). Reduced neuronal size in posterior hippocampus of schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 597-608.
18. Bergman, A. J., Wolfson, M. A., & Walker, E. F. (1997). Neuromotor functioning, and behavior problems in children at risk for psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 229-237.
19. Bernstein, H. G., Krell, D., Baumann, B., Danos, P., Falkai, P., Diekmann, S., Henning, H., & Bogerts, B. (1998). Morphometric studies of the entorhinal cortex in neuropsychiatrie patients and controls: Clusters of heterotopically displaced lamina II neurons are not indicative of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 33, 125-132.
20. Black, M. D., Selk, D. E., Hitchcock, J. M., Wettstein, J. G., & Sorensen, S. M. (1999). On the effect of neonatal nitric oxide synthase inhibition in rats: A potential neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology, 38, 1299-1306.
21. Bleuler, M. (1978). The schizophrenic disorders: Long-term patient and family studies (S. M. Clemens, Trans.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
22. Breier, A., Schreiber, J. L., Dyer, J., & Pickar, D. (1991). National Institute of Mental Health longitudinal study of chronic schizophrenia - Prognosis and predictors of outcome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 239-246.
23. Brown, A. S., van Os, J., Driessens, C., Hoek, H. W., & Susser, E. S. (1999). Prenatal famine and the spectrum of psychosis. Psychiatry Annals, 29, 145-150.
24. Bullmore, E., Brammer, M., Harvey, I., Murray, R., & Ron, M. (1995). Cerebral hemispheric asymmetry revisited - Effects of handedness, gender and schizophrenia measured by radius of gyration in magnetic-resonance images. Psychological Medicine, 25, 349-363.
25. Bullmore, E. T., Woodruff, P. W. R., Wright, I. C., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Howard, R. J., Shuriquie, N., & Murray, R. M. (1998). Does dysplasia cause anatomical dysconnectivity in schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Research, 30, 127-135.
26. Burek, M. J., & Oppenheim, R. W. (1996). Programmed cell death in the developing nervous system. Brain Pathology, 6, 427-446.
27. Cannon, M., Jones, P., Huttunen, M. O., Tanskanen, A., Huttunen, T., Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Murray, R. M. (1999). School performance in Finnish children and later development of schizophrenia - A population-based longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 457-463.
28. Cannon, T. D., Mednick, S. A., & Parnas, J. (1989). Genetic and perinatal determinants of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 883-889.
29. Cannon, T. D., Mednick, S. A., & Parnas, J. (1990). Antecedents of predominantly negative-symptom and predominantly positive-symptom schizophrenia in a high-risk population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 622-632.
30. Carpenter, W. T., & Strauss, J. S. (1991). The prediction of outcome in schizophrenia .4. 11-year follow-up of the Washington Ipss Cohort. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 179, 517-525.
31. Casanova, M. F., Goldberg, T. E., Suddath, R. L., Daniel, D. G., Rawlings, R., Lloyd, D. G., Loats, H. L., Kleinman, J. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1990). Quantitative shape analysis of the temporal and prefrontal lobes of schizophrenic patients: A magnetic resonance image study. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 2, 363-372.
32. Casanova, M. F., Stevens, J. R., & Kleinman, J. E. (1990). Astrocytosis in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus - A study in Alzheimers disease and schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research-Neuroimaging, 35, 149-166.
33. Chen, K. S., & Stanfield, B. B. (1987). Evidence that selective collateral elimination during postnatal development results in a restriction in the distribution of locus-coeruleus neurons which project to the spinal cord in rats. Brain Research, 410, 154-158.
34. Cicchetti, D., & Cannon, T. D. (1999). Neurodevelopmental processes in the ontogenesis and epigenesis of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 375-393.
35. Ciompi, L. (1980). Catamnestic long-term study on the course of life and aging of schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 6, 606-618.
36. Conturo, T. E., Lori, N. F., Cull, T. S., Akbudak, E., Snyder, A. Z., Shimony, J. S., McKinstry, R. C., Burton, H., & Raichle, M. E. (1999). Tracking neuronal fiber pathways in the living human brain. PNAS, 96, 10422-10427.
37. Cornblatt, B., Obuchowski, M., Roberts, S., Pollack, S., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1999). Cognitive and behavioral precursors of schizophrenia. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 487-508.
38. Cotter, D., Takei, N., Farrell, M., Sham, P., Quinn, P., Larkin, C., Oxford, J., Murray, R. M., & O'Callaghan, E. (1995). Does prenatal exposure to influenza in mice induce pyramidal cell disarray in the dorsal hippocampus? Schizophrenia Research, 16, 233-241.
39. Crawford, J. R., Besson, J. A. O., Bremner, M., Ebmeier, K. P., Cochrane, R. H. B., & Kirkwood, K. (1992). Estimation of premorbid intelligence in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 69-74.
40. Crow, T. J. (1996). Ontogeny and phylogeny of cerebral asymmetry - Schizophrenia as a component of the variation generated in the evolution of language. In J. L. Waddington & P. F. Buckley (Eds.), The neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia (pp. 153-166). Georgetown, TX: R. G. Landes.
41. Crow, T. J., Bruton, C. J., Frith, C. D., Johnstone, E. C., & Owens, D. G. C. (1991). Temporal lobe asymmetries as a clue to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 4, 402.
42. Crow, T. J., Done, D. J., & Johnstone, E. C. (1992). Schizophrenia is not due to maternal influenza in the 2nd (or other) trimester of pregnancy. Schizophrenia Research, 6, 99.
43. Csernansky, J. G., Joshi, S., Wang, L., Haller, J. W., Gado, M., Miller, J. P., Grenander, U., & Miller, M. I. (1998). Hippocampal morphometry in schizophrenia by high dimensional brain mapping. PNAS, 95, 11406-11411.
44. Dalman, C., Allebeck, P., Cullberg, J., Grunewald, C., & Koster, M. (1999). Obstetric complications and the risk of schizophrenia - A longitudinal study of a national birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 234-240.
45. David, A. S., Malmberg, A., Brandt, L., Allebeck, P., & Lewis, G. (1997). IQ and risk for schizophrenia: A population-based cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1311-1323.
46. Davidson, M., Reichenberg, A., Rabinowitz, J., Weiser, M., Kaplan, Z., & Mark, M. (1999). Behavioral and intellectual markers for schizophrenia in apparently healthy male adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1328-1335.
47. Davis, K. L., Buchsbaum, M. S., Shihabuddin, L., Spiegel-Cohen, J., Metzger, M., Frecska, E., Keefe, R. S., & Powchik, P. (1998). Ventricular enlargement in poor-outcome schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 783-793.
48. Degreef, G., Ashtari, M., Wu, H. W., Borenstein, M., Geisler, S., & Lieberman, J. (1991). Follow-up MRI study in 1st episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 5, 204-206.
49. DeLisi, L. E., Sakuma, M., Ge, S. M., & Kushner, M. (1998). Association of brain structural change with the heterogeneous course of schizophrenia from early childhood through five years subsequent to a first hospitalization. Psychiatry Research-Neuroimaging, 84, 75-88.
50. DeLisi, L. E., Sakuma, M., Tew, W., Kushner, M., Hoff, A. L., & Crimson, R. (1997). Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: A study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research-Neuroimaging, 74, 129-140.
51. Delisi, L. E., Stritzke, P. H., Holan, V., Anand, A., Boccio, A., Kuschner, M., Riordan, H., McClelland, J., & Vaneyl, O. (1991). Brain morphological changes in 1st episode cases of schizophrenia - Are they progressive? Schizophrenia Research, 5, 206-208.
52. Delisi, L. E., Stritzke, P., Riordan, H., Holan, V., Boccio, A., Kushner, M., McClelland, J., Vaneyl, O., & Anand, A. (1992). The timing of brain morphological-changes in schizophrenia and their relationship to clinical outcome. Biological Psychiatry, 31, 241-254.
53. Delisi, L. E., Tew, W., Xie, S. H., Hoff, A. L., Sakuma, M., Kushner, M., Lee, G., Shedlack, K., Smith, A. M., & Grimson, R. (1995). A prospective follow-up study of brain morphology and cognition in first-episode schizophrenic patients - Preliminary findings. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 349-360.
54. Desisto, M., Harding, C. M., McCormick, R. V., Ashikaga, T., & Brooks, G. W. (1995). The Maine and Vermont 3-Decade Studies of Serious Mental Illness .2. Longitudinal course comparisons. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 338-342.
55. Done, D. J., Crow, T. J., Johnstone, E. C., & Sacker, A. (1994). Childhood antecedents of schizophrenia and affective illness - Social adjustment at ages 7 and 11. British Medical Journal, 309, 699-703.
56. Done, D. J., Johnstone, E. C., Frith, C. D., Golding, J., Shepherd, P. M., & Crow, T. J. (1991). Complications of pregnancy and delivery in relation to psychosis in adult life - Data from the British Perinatal-Mortality Survey Sample. British Medical Journal 302, 1576-1580.
57. Eastwood, S. L., & Harrison, P. J. (1995). Decreased synaptophysin in the medial temporal lobe in schizophrenia demonstrated using immunoautoradiography. Neuroscience, 69, 339-343.
58. Eaton, W. W., Thara, R., Federman, B., Melton, B., & Liang, K. Y. (1995). Structure and course of positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 127-134.
59. Elvevåg, B., & Weinberger, D. R. (1997). Commentary: Schizophrenia and autism considered as the products of an agnosic right shift gene. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 2, 221-225.
60. Eriksson, P. S., Perfilieva, E., Bjork-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A. M., Nordborg, C., Peterson, D. A., & Gage, F. H. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4, 1313-1317.
61. Falkai, P., & Bogerts, B. (1986). Cell loss in the hippocampus of schizophrenics. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Science, 236, 154-161.
62. Falkai, P., & Bogerts, B. (1992). Neurodevelopmental abnormalities in schizophrenia. Clinical Neuropharmacology. 15 (Suppl. 1, P0t. A), 498A-499A.
63. Falkai, P. G., & Bogerts, B. (1996). The neuropathological basis of schizophrenia. In J. L. Waddington & P. F. Buckley (Eds.), The neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia (pp. 135-152). Georgetown, TX: R. G. Landes.
64. Falkai, P., Bogerts, B., Schneider, T., Hobson, T., & Pfeiffer, U. (1995). The superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale and sylvian fissure in schizophrenia - A combined morphometric postmortem study. Schizophrenia Research, 15, 27.
65. Feinberg, I. (1982). Schizophrenia: Caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 319-334.
66. Fish, B. (1957). The detection of schizophrenia in infancy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 125, 1-24.
67. Fish, B. (1977). Neurobiologie antecedents of schizophrenia in children. Evidence for an inherited, congenital neurointegrative defect. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 1297-1313.
68. Fish, B., Marcus, J., Hans, S. L., Auerbach, J. G., & Perdue, S. (1992). Infants at risk for schizophrenia - Sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect - A review and replication analysis of pandysmaturation in the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 221-235.
69. Freedman, L. R., Rock, D., Roberts, S. A., Cornblatt, B. A., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1998). The New York High-Risk Project: Attention, anhedonia and social outcome. Schizophrenia Research, 30, 1-9.
70. Frith, C. (1995). Functional imaging and cognitive abnormalities. Lancet, 346, 615-620.
71. Geddes, J. R., & Lawrie, S. M. (1995). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 786-793.
72. Geschwind, N., & Levitsky, W. (1968). Human brain: Left-right asymmetries in temporal speech region. Science, 161, 186-7.
73. Gould, E., Reeves, A. J., Graziano, M. S. A., & Gross, C. G. (1999). Neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult primates. Science, 286, 548-552.
74. Green, M. F., Satz, P., & Christenson, C. (1994). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia - Schizophrenia patients, bipolar patients, and their siblings. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 433-440.
75. Green, M. F., Satz, P., Soper, H. V., & Kharabi, F. (1987). Relationship between physical anomalies and age at onset of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 666-667.
76. Gur, R. E., Cowell, P., Turetsky, B. I., Gallacher, F., Cannon, T., Bilker, W., & Gur, R. C. (1998). A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia - Relationship of neuroanatomical changes to clinical and neurobehavioral measures. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 145-152.
77. Gur, R. E., Maany, V., Mozley, D., Swanson, C., Bilker, W., & Gur, R. C. (1998). Subcortical MRI volumes in neuroleptic-naive and treated patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1711-1717.
78. Hans, S. L., Marcus, J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Asarnow, R. F., Styr, B., & Auerbach, J. G. (1999). Neurobehavioral deficits at adolescence in children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 741-748.
79. Harding, C. M., Zubin, J., & Strauss, J. S. (1992). Chronicity in schizophrenia - Revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 27-37.
80. Hegarty, J. D., Baldessarini, R. J., Tohen, M., Waternaux, C., & Oepen, G. (1994). 100 years of schizophrenia - A metaanalysis of the outcome literature. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1409-1416.
81. Hyde, T. M., Bachus, S. E., Levitt, P., Herman, M. M., Pimenta, A. F., Kleinman, J. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1997). Reduction in hippocampal limbic system associated protein (LAMP) mRNA in schizophrenia. Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 23, 2200.
82. Hyde, T. M., Ziegler, J. C., & Weinberger, D. R. (1992). Psychiatric disturbances in metachromatic leukodystrophy. Insights into the neurobiology of psychosis [see comments]. Archives of Neurology, 49, 401-406.
83. Illowsky, B. P., Juliano, D. M., Bigelow, L. B., & Weinberger, D. R. (1988). Stability of CT scan findings in schizophrenia - Results of an 8 year follow-up study. Journal of Neurological and Neurosurgical Psychiatry, 51, 209-213.
84. Impagnatiello, F., Guidotti, A. R., Pesold, C., Dwivedi, Y., Caruncho, H., Pisu, M. G., Uzunov, D. P., Smalheiser, N. R., Davis, J. M., Pandey, G. N., Pappas, G. D., Tueting, P., Sharma, R. P., & Costa, E. (1998). A decrease of reelin expression as a putative vulnerability factor in schizophrenia. PNAS, 95, 15718-15723.
85. Isohanni, I., Jarvelin, M. R., Nieminen, P., Jones, P., Rantakallio, P., Jokelainen, J., & Isohanni, M. (1998). School performance as a predictor of psychiatric hospitalization in adult life. A 28-year follow-up in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Psychological Medicine, 28, 967-974.
86. Jakob, H., & Beckmann, H. (1986). Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics. Journal of Neural Transmission, 65, 303-326.
87. Jaskiw, G. E., Juliano, D. M., Goldberg, T. E., Hertzman, M., Urowhamell, E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1994). Cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophreniform disorder does not progress - A 7 year follow-up study. Schizophrenia Research, 14, 23-28.
88. Johnstone, E. C., Crow, T. J., Frith, C. D., Husband, J., & Kreel, L. (1976). Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet, 2, 924-926.
89. Joliot, M., Ribary, U., & Llinas, R. (1994). Human oscillatory brain activity near 40 Hz coexists with cognitive temporal binding. PNAS, 91, 11748-11751.
90. Jones, P. (1997). The early origins of schizophrenia. British Medical Bulletin, 53, 135-155.
91. Jones, P., Murray, R., & Rodgers, B. (1995). Childhood risk factors for adult schizophrenia in a general population birth cohort at age 43 years. In S. A. Mednick & J. M. Hollister (Eds.), Neural development and schizophrenia: Theory and research (Vol. 275, pp. 151-176). New York: Plenum Press.
92. Jones, P., & Done, D. J. (1997). From birth to onset: A developmental perspective of schizophrenia in two national birth cohorts. In M. S. Keshavan & R. M. Murray (Eds.), Neurodevelopment and adult psychopathology (pp. 119-136). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
93. Jones, P., Rodgers, B., Murray, R., & Marmot, M. (1994). Child developmental risk-factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 Birth Cohort. Lancet, 344, 1398-1402.
94. Jones, P. B., Rantakallio, P., Hartikainen, A. L., Isohanni, M., & Sipila, P. (1998). Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, delivery, and perinatal complications: A 28-year follow-up of the 1966 North Finland general population birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 355-364.
95. Kirch, D. G., & Weinberger, D. R. (1986). Anatomical neuropathology in schizophrenia: Post-mortem findings. In H. A. Nasrallah & D. R. Weinberger (Eds.), Handbook of schizophrenia (Vol. 1, pp. 325-348). New York: Elsevier.
96. Krapelin, E. (1902). Clinical psychiatry: A textbook for students and physicians (A. R. Defendorf, Trans.). New York: Macmillan.
97. Kremen, W. S., Buka, S. L., Seidman, L. J., Goldstein, J. M., Koren, D., & Tsuang, M. T. (1998). IQ decline during childhood and adult psychotic symptoms in a community sample: A 19-year longitudinal study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 672-677.
98. Krimer, L. S., Hyde, T. M., Herman, M. M., & Saunders, R. C. (1997). The entorhinal cortex: An examination of cyto-and myeloarchitectonic organization in humans. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 722-731.
99. Kulynych, J. J., Foundas, A. L., & Weinberger, D. R. (1995). Abnormal cortical gyrification in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 15, 89.
100. Kwon, J. S., McCarley, R. W., Hirayasu, Y., Anderson, J. E., Fischer, I. A., Kikinis, R., Jolesz, F. A., & Shenton, M. E. (1999). Left planum temporale volume reduction in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 142-148.
101. Lane, A., Larkin, C., Waddington, J. L., & O'Callaghan, E. (1996). Dysmorphic features and schizophrenia. In J. L. Waddington & P. F. Buckley (Eds.), The neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia (pp. 79-94). Georgetown, TX: R. G. Landes.
102. Lane, A., Kinsella, A., Murphy, P., Byrne, M., Keenan, J., Colgan, K., Cassidy, B., Sheppard, N., Horgan, R., Waddington, J. L., Larkin, C., & O'Callaghan, E. (1997). The anthropometric assessment of dysmorphic features in schizophrenia as an index of its developmental origins. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1155-1164.
103. Lewis, D. A., & Anderson, S. A. (1995). The functional architecture of the prefrontal cortex and schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 25, 887-894.
104. Lewis, D. A., & Glantz, L. A. (1997). Specificity of decreased spine density on layer III pyramidal cells in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 24, 39.
105. Lipska, B. K., Jaskiw, G. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1993). Postpubertal emergence of hyperresponsiveness to stress and to amphetamine after neonatal excitotoxic hippocampal damage: A potential animal model of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 9, 67-75.
106. Luchins, D. J., Weinberger, D. R., & Wyatt, R. J. (1979). Schizophrenia: Evidence of a subgroup with reversed cerebral asymmetry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 1309-1311.
107. Machon, R. A., Mednick, S. A., & Huttunen, M. O. (1997). Adult major affective disorder after prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 322-328.
108. Malmberg, A., Lewis, G., David, A., & Allebeck, P. (1998). Premorbid adjustment and personality in people with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 308-313.
109. Marcelis, M., van Os, J., Sham, P., Jones, P., Gilvarry, C., Cannon, M., McKenzie, K., & Murray, R. (1998). Obstetric complications and familial morbid risk of psychiatric disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81, 29-36.
110. Marcus, J., Auerbach, J., Wilkinson, L., & Burack, C. M. (1981). Infants at risk for schizophrenia. The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 703-713.
111. Marcus, J., Hans, S. L., Auerbach, J. G., & Auerbach, A. G. (1993). Children at risk for schizophrenia-The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. 2. Neurobehavioral deficits at school age. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 797-809.
112. Marcus, J., Hans, S. L., Nagler, S., Auerbach, J. G., Mirsky, A. F., & Aubrey, A. (1987). Review of the NIMH Israeli Kibbutz-City Study and the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13, 425-438.
113. Marin-Padilla, M. (1997). Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. II: White matter lesions of the neocortex. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 56, 219-235.
114. Marin-Padilla, M. (1999). Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. III: Gray matter lesions of the neocortex. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 58, 407-429.
115. Mason, P., Harrison, G., Glazebrook, C., Medley, I., & Croudace, T. (1996). The course of schizophrenia over 13 years - A report from the international study on schizophrenia (ISoS) coordinated by the World Health Organization. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 580-586.
116. McGrath, J., & Castle, D. (1995). Does influenza cause schizophrenia - A 5-year review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 29, 23-31.
117. McGrath, J. J., Pemberton, M. R., Welham, J. L., & Murray, R. M. (1994). Schizophrenia and the influenza epidemics of 1954, 1957 and 1959 - A southern-hemisphere study. Schizophrenia Research, 14, 1-8.
118. McNeil, T. F. (1996). Obstetric complications. In J. L. Waddington & P. F. Buckley (Eds.), The neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia (pp. 61-78). Georgetown, TX: R. G. Landes.
119. McNeil, T. F., Cantor-Graae, E., & Weinberger, D. R. (in press). The relationship of obstetric complications (OCs) and brain structure size differences in monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia, an MRI and OC study. American Journal of Psychiatry.
120. Meaney, M. J. (1999). Early environmental experience and lifelong changes in behavior and in gene expression. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 44S.
121. Mednick, S. A., Huttunen, M. O., & Machon, R. A. (1994). Prenatal influenza infections and adult schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 263-267.
122. Mednick, S. A., Machon, R. A., Huttunen, M. O., & Bonett, D. (1988). Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 189-192.
123. Meyer, G., & Goffinet, A. M. (1998). Prenatal development of reelin-immunoreactive neurons in the human neocortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 397, 29-40.
124. Mortensen, P. B., Pedersen, C. B., Westergaard, T., Wohlfahrt, J., Ewald, H., Mors, O., Andersen, P. K., & Melbye, M. (1999). Effects of family history and place and season of birth on the risk of schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 603-608.
125. Nelson, K. B., & Ellenberg, J. H. (1984). Obstetric complications as risk factors for cerebral palsy or seizure disorders. JAMA, 251, 1843-1848.
126. Nimgaonkar, V. L., Wessely, S., Tune, L. E., & Murray, R. M. (1988). Response to drugs in schizophrenia - The influence of family history, obstetric complications and ventricular enlargement. Psychological Medicine, 18, 583-592.
127. Noga, J. T., Bartley, A. J., Jones, D. W., Torrey, E. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (1996). Cortical gyral anatomy and gross brain dimensions in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 22, 27-40.
128. O'Callaghan, E., Gibson, T., Colohan, H. A., Buckley, P., Walshe, D. G., Larkin, C., & Waddington, J. L. (1992). Risk of schizophrenia in adults born after obstetric complications and their association with early onset of illness - A controlled study. British Medical Journal, 305, 1256-1259.
129. O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C., & Waddington, J. L. (1990). Obstetric complications in schizophrenia and the validity of maternal recall. Psychological Medicine, 20, 89-94.
130. Olin, S. C. S., & Mednick, S. A. (1996). Risk factors of psychosis: Identifying vulnerable populations premorbidly. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22, 223-240.
131. Olin, S. C. S., Mednick, S. A., Cannon, T., Jacobsen, B., Parnas, J., Schulsinger, F., & Schulsinger, H. (1998). School teacher ratings predictive of psychiatric outcome 25 years later. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 7-13.
132. Ott, S. L., Spinelli, S., Rock, D., Roberts, S., Amminger, G. P., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1998). The New York High-Risk Project: Social and general intelligence in children at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 31, 1-11.
133. Pascual-Leone, A., Tarazona, F., Keenan, J., Tormos, J. M., Hamilton, R., & Catala, M. D. (1999). Transcranial magnetic stimulation and neuroplasticity. Neuropsychologia, 37, 207-217.
134. Pearlson, G. D., Kim, W. S., Kubos, K. L., Moberg, P. J., Jayaram, G., Bascom, M. J., Chase, G. A., Goldfinger, A. D., & Tune, L. E. (1989). Ventricle-brain ratio, computed tomographic density, and brain area in 50 schizophrenics [see comments]. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 690-697.
135. PerroneBizzozero, N. I., Sower, A. C., Bird, E. D., Benowitz, L. I., Ivins, K. J., & Neve, R. L. (1996). Levels of the growth-associated protein GAP-43 are selectively increased in association cortices in schizophrenia. PNAS, 93, 14182-14187.
136. Rantakallio, P., Jones, P., Moring, J., & VonWendt, L. (1997). Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: A 28-year follow-up. International Journal of Epidemiology, 26, 837-843.
137. Rifkin, L., Lewis, S., Jones, P., Toone, B., & Murray, R. (1994). Low birth weight and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 357-362.
138. Robinson, D., Woerner, M. G., Alvir, J. M. J., Bilder, R., Goldman, R., Geisler, S., Koreen, A., Sheitman, B., Chakos, M., Mayerhoff, D., & Lieberman, J. A. (1999). Predictors of relapse following response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 241-247.
139. Robinson, D. G., Woerner, M. G., Alvir, J. M. J., Geisler, S., Koreen, A., Sheitman, B., Chakos, M., Mayerhoff, D., Bilder, R., Goldman, R., & Lieberman, J. A. (1999). Predictors of treatment response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 544-549.
140. Rund, B. R. (1998). A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive functions in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 425-435.
141. Schell, M. J., Brady, R. O., Jr., Molliver, M. E., & Snyder, S. H. (1997). D-serine as a neuromodulator: Regional and developmental localizations in rat brain glia resemble NMDA receptors. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 1604-1615.
142. Selemon, L. D., Rajkowska, G., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1998). Elevated neuronal density in prefrontal area 46 in brains from schizophrenic patients: Application of a three-dimensional, stereologic counting method. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 392, 402-412.
143. Stephens, J. H. (1978). Long-term prognosis and follow-up in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 4, 25-47.
144. Susser, E., Neugebauer, R., Hoek, H. W., Brown, A. S., Lin, S., Labovitz, D., & Gorman, J. M. (1996). Schizophrenia after prenatal famine - Further evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 25-31.
145. Thara, R., Henrietta, M., Joseph, A., Rajkumar, S., & Eaton, W. W. (1994). 10-year course of schizophrenia - The Madras Longitudinal Study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 90, 329-336.
146. Tienari, P. (1991). Interaction between genetic vulnerability and family environment - The Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 84, 460-465.
147. Torrey, E. F., Rawlings, R., & Waldman, I. N. (1988). Schizophrenic births and viral diseases in two states. Schizophrenia Research, 1, 73-77.
148. Tsuang, M. T., Woolson, R. F., & Fleming, J. A. (1979). Long-term outcome of major psychoses. I. Schizophrenia and affective disorders compared with psychiatrically symptom-free surgical conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 1295-1301.
149. Turner, T. H. (1989). Schizophrenia and mental handicap - An historical review, with implications for further research. Psychological Medicine, 19, 301-314.
150. Tyrka, A. R., Cannon, T. D., Haslam, N., Mednick, S. A., Schulsinger, F., Schulsinger, H., & Parnas, J. (1995). The latent structure of schizotypy: I. Premorbid indicators of a taxon of individuals at risk for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psycholpgy, 104, 173-183.
151. Vawter, M. P., Cannon-Spoor, H. E., Hemperly, J. J., Hyde, T. M., VanderPutten, D. M., Kleinman, J. E., & Freed, W. J. (1998). Abnormal expression of cell recognition molecules in schizophrenia. Experimental Neurology, 149, 424-432.
152. Verdoux, H., & Bourgeois, M. (1993). A comparative study of obstetric history in schizophrenics, bipolar patients and normal subjects. Schizophrenia Research, 9, 67-69.
153. Vita, A. (1991). Cerebral ventricular abnormalities in schizophrenia - Evidence of their early origin and stability over time. Schizophrenia Research, 5, 189-190.
154. Walker, E. F., Savoie, T., & Davis, D. (1994). Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 441-451.
155. Watson, C. G., Kucala, T., Tilleskjor, C., & Jacobs, L. (1984). Schizophrenic birth seasonality in relation to the incidence of infectious diseases and temperature extremes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 85-90.
156. Watt, N. F. (1972). Longitudinal changes in the social behavior of children hospitalized for schizophrenia as adults. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 155, 42-54.
157. Watt, N. F. (1978). Patterns of childhood social development in adult schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 160-165.
158. Weinberger, D. R. (1986). The pathogenesis of schizophrenia: A
159. Weinberger, D. R. (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 660-669.
160. Weinberger, D. R. (1995). From neuropathology to neurodevelopment. Lancet, 346, 552-557.
161. Weinberger, D. R. (1999a). Cell biology of the hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 395-402.
162. Weinberger, D. R. (1999b). Schizophrenia: New phenes and new genes. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 3-7.
163. Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., Suddath, R., & Torrey, E. F. (1992). Evidence of dysfunction of a prefrontallimbic network in schizophrenia - A magnetic-resonance-imaging and regional cerebral blood-flow study of discordant monozygotic twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 890-897.
164. Weinberger, D. R., Cannon-Spoor, E., Potkin, S. G., & Wyatt, R. J. (1980). Poor premorbid adjustment and CT scan abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1410-1413.
165. Weinberger, D. R., DeLisi, L. E., Perman, G. P., Targum, S., & Wyatt, R. J. (1982). Computed tomography in schizophreniform disorder and other acute psychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 778-783.
166. Weinberger, D. R., Torrey, E. F., Neophytides, A. N., & Wyatt, R. J. (1979). Lateral cerebral ventricular enlargement in chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 735-739.
167. Wilcox, J. A., & Nasrallah, H. A. (1987). Perinatal distress and prognosis of psychotic illness. Neuropsychobiology, 17, 173-175.
168. Woods, B. T. (1998). Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1661-1670.
169. Xuan, S., Baptista, C. A., Balas, G., Tao, W., Soares, V. C., & Lai, E. (1995). Winged helix transcription factor BF-1 is essential for the development of the cerebral hemispheres. Neuron, 14, 1141-1152.
170. Zaidel, D. W., Esiri, M. M., & Harrison, P. J. (1997). The hippocampus in schizophrenia: Lateralized increase in neuronal density and altered cytoarchitectural asymmetry. Psychological Medicine, 27, 703-713.