A Review and New Report of Medial Temporal Lobe Dysfunction as a Vulnerability Indicator for Schizophrenia: A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Morphometric Family Study of the Parahippocampal Gyrus

Schizophrenia Bulletin

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 803-830

  Seidman, Larry J ^a,b,c,d   Pantelis, Christos ^e   Keshavan, Matcheri S ^f   Faraone, Stephen V ^c,g   Goldstein, Jill M ^a,c,h   Horton, Nicholas J ⁱ   Makris, Nikos ^c   Falkai, Peter ^j   Caviness, Verne S ^c   Tsuang, Ming T ^a,g,k  

^a MASSACHUSETTS MENTAL HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

^b VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^d HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

^g HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^h BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

ⁱ SMITH COLLEGE   (United States)

^j SAARLAND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^k UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Genetics; Hippocampus; MRI; Parahippocampal gyrus; Relatives; Schizophrenia; Verbal declarative memory

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; BRAIN SIZE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; FAMILY LIFE; FEMALE; GENETIC ANALYSIS; GENETIC RISK; HUMAN; IMMINENT PSYCHOSIS; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MALE; MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBE DYSFUNCTION; MORPHOMETRICS; NEUROANATOMY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHOOL CHILD; SUBICULUM; TEMPORAL LOBE; VERBAL MEMORY;

EID: 10744227091     PISSN: 05867614     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007048     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (155)

1. Aleman, A.; Hijman, R.; de Haan, E.H.F.; and Kahn, R.S. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156:1358-1366, 1999.
2. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-III-R: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed., revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1987.
3. Annett, M. A classification of hand preference by association analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 61:303-321, 1970.
4. Baare, W.E; Hulshoff Pol, H.E.; Hijman, R.; Mali, W.P.; Viergever, M.A.; and Kahn, R.S. Volumetric analysis of frontal lobe regions in schizophrenia: Relation to cognitive function and symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 45:1597-1605, 1999.
5. Becker, T.; Elmer, K.; Mechela, B.; Schneider, F.; Taubert, S.; Schroth, G.; Grodd, W.; Bartels, M.; and Beckmann, H. MRI findings in medial temporal lobe structures in schizophrenia. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 1:83-86, 1990.
6. Benes, F.M. Evidence for altered trisynaptic circuitry in schizophrenic hippocampus. Biological Psychiatry, 46:589-599, 1999.
7. Bogerts, B.; Ashtari, M.; Degreef, G.; Alvir, J.M.; Bilder, R.M.; and Lieberman, J.A. Reduced temporal limbic structures on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 35:1-13, 1990.
8. Bogerts, B.; Meertz, E.; and Schonfeldtbausch, R. Basal ganglia and limbic system pathology in schizophrenia: A morphometric study of brain volume and shrinkage. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42:784-791, 1985.
9. Brooker, B.H., and Cyr, J.J. Tables for clinicians to use to convert WAIS-R short forms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42:983-986, 1986.
10. Brown, R.; Colter, N.; Corsellis, J.A.; Crow, T.J.; Frith, C.D.; Jagoe, R.; Johnstone, E.C.; and Marsh, L. Postmortem evidence of brain changes in schizophrenia: Differences in brain weight, temporal horn area, and parahippocampal gyrus compared with affective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43:36-42, 1985.
11. Buckley, P.; O'Callaghan, E.; Larkin, C.; and Waddington, J.L. Schizophrenia research: The problem of controls. Biological Psychiatry, 32:215-217, 1992.
12. Buka, S.L.; Goldstein, J.M.; Seidman, L.J.; Zornberg, G.L.; Donatelli, J.A.; Denny, L.R.; and Tsuang, M.T. Prenatal complications, genetic vulnerability, and schizophrenia: The New England longitudinal studies of schizophrenia. Psychiatric Annals, 29:151-156, 1999.
13. Burgess, N.; Maguire, E.A.; Spiers, H.J.; and O'Keefe, J. A temporoparietal and prefrontal network for retrieving the spatial context of lifelike events. NeuroImage, 14:439-453, 2001.
14. Cahn, W.; Hulshoff Pol, H.E.; Lems, B.T.E.; van Haren, N.E.M.; Schnack, H.G.; van der Linden, J.A.; Schothorst, P.F.; van Engeland, H.; and Kahn, R.S. Brain volume changes in first episode schizophrenia: A 1-year follow-up study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:1002-1010, 2002.
15. Callicott, J.H.; Egan, M.F.; Bertolino, A.; Mattay, V.S.; Langheim, F.J. ; Frank, J.A.; and Weinberger, D.R. Hippocampal N-acetyl aspartate in unaffected siblings of patients with schizophrenia: A possible intermediate neurobiological phenotype. Biological Psychiatry, 44:941-950, 1998.
16. Cannon, T.D.; Mednick, S.A.; Parnas, J.; Schulsinger, F.; Praestholm, J. ; and Vestergaard, A. Developmental brain abnormalities in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers: Contributions of genetic and perinatal factors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50:551-564, 1993.
17. Cannon, T.D.; Rosso, I.M.; Hollister, J.M.; Bearden, C.E.; Sanchez, L.E. ; and Hadley, T. A prospective cohort study of genetic and perinatal influences in the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26(2):351-366, 2000.
18. Cannon, T.D.; Theo, G.M.; van Erp, M.A.; Rosso, I.M.; Huttunen, M.; Loennqvist, J.; Pirkhola, T.; Salonen, O.; Valanne, L.; Poutanen, V.P.; and Standertskjoeld-Nordenstam, C.G. Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:35-41, 2002.
19. Cannon, T.D.; Van Erp, T.G.; Bearden, C.E.; Loewy, R.; Thompson, P.; Toga, A.W.; Huttunen, M.O.; Keshavan, M.; Malaspina, D.; Seidman, L.J.; Tsuang, M.T. Early and late neurodevelopmental influences in the prodrome to schizophrenia: Contributions of genes, environment, and their interactions. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(4):653-669, 2003.
20. Cannon, T.D.; Van Erp, T.G.M.; Huttunen, M.; Lonnqvist, J.; Salonen, O.; and Valanne, L. Regional gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid distributions in schizophrenic patients, their siblings and controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55:1084-1091, 1998.
21. Caviness, V.S.; Makris, N.; Meyer, J.; and Kennedy, D. MRI-based parcellation of human neocortex: An anatomically specified method with estimate of reliability. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8:566-588, 1996.
22. Center for Morphometric Analysis, Massachusetts General Hospital. "Manual for Defining Cortical Parcellation and Segmentation Boundaries." Unpublished manual, 2002.
23. Chua, S.E.; Sharma, T.; Takei, N.; Murray, R.M.; and Woodruff, P.W.R. A magnetic resonance imaging study of corpus callosum size in familial schizophrenic subjects, their relatives and normal controls. Schizophrenia Research, 41:397-403, 2000.
24. Cirillo, M., and Seidman, L.J. A review of verbal declarative memory function in schizophrenia: From clinical assessment to genetics and brain mechanisms. Neuropsychology Review, 13:43-77, 2003.
25. Cnaan, A.; Laird, N.M.; and Slasor, P. Using the general linear mixed model to analyze unbalanced repeated measures and longitudinal data. Statistics in Medicine, 16:2349-2380, 1997.
26. Corey-Bloom, J.; Jernigan, T.; Archibald, S.; Harris, M.J.; and Jeste, D.V. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in late-life schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152:447-449, 1995.
27. Crow, T.J.; Ball, J.; Bloom, S.R.; Brown, R.; Bruton, C.J.; Colter, N.; Frith, C.D.; Johnstone, E.C.; Owens, D.G.; and Roberts, G.W. Schizophrenia as an anomaly of development of cerebral asymmetry: A postmortem study and a proposal concerning the genetic basis of the disease. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46:1145-1150, 1989.
28. Dauphinais, I.D.; DeLisi, L.E.; Crow, T.J.; Alexandropoulos, K.; Colter, N.; Tuma, I.; and Gershon, E.S. Reduction in temporal lobe size in siblings with schizophrenia: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research, 35:137-147, 1990.
29. Deakin, F.W.; Simpson, M.D.; Slater, P.; and Hellewell, J.S. Familial and developmental abnormalities of frontal lobe function and neurochemistry in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11: 133-142, 1997.
30. DeLisi, L.E.; Dauphinais, I.D.; and Gershon, E.S. Perinatal complications and reduced size of brain limbic structures in familial schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 14(2):185-191, 1988.
31. DeLisi, L.E.; Hoff, A.L.; and Schwartz, J.E. Brain morphology in first episode schizophrenic-like psychotic patients: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 29:159-175, 1991.
32. DeLisi, L.E.; Sakuma, M.; Tew, W.; Kushner, M.; Hoff, A.L.; and Grimson, R. Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: A study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 74:129-140, 1997.
33. Diwadkar, V.; Sweeney, J.; Boarts, D.; Montrose, D.; and Keshavan, M. Oculomotor delayed response abnormalities in young offspring and siblings at risk for schizophrenia. CNS Spectrums, 6:899-903, 2001.
34. Eichenbaum, H. The hippocampal system and declarative memory in humans and animals: Experimental analysis and historical origins. In: Schacter, D., and Tulving, E., eds. Memory Systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994. pp. 147-201.
35. Engelien, A.; Stern, E.; Isenberg, N.; Engelien, W.; Frith, C.; and Silbersweig, D. The parahippocampal region and auditory-mnemonic processing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 911:477-485, 2000.
36. Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. Early neurobehavioral deficits as phenotypic indicators of the schizophrenia genotype and predictors of later psychosis. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 105:23-24, 2001.
37. Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L.; Adamo, U.H.; Rock, D.; Roberts, S.A.; Bassett, A.S.; Squires-Wheeler, E.; Cornblatt, B.A.; Endicott, J.; Pape, S.; and Gottesman, I.I. The New York High-Risk Project. Prevalence and comorbidity of axis I disorders in offspring of schizophrenic parents at 25-year follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54:1096-1102, 1997.
38. Falkai, P.; Bogerts, B.; and Rozumek, M. Limbic pathology in schizophrenia: The entorhinal region morphometric study. Biological Psychiatry, 24:515-521, 1988.
39. Faraone, S.V.; Green, A.I.; Seidman, L.J.; and Tsuang, M.T. "Schizotaxia": Clinical implications and new directions for research. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 27(1):1-18, 2001.
40. Faraone, S.V.; Seidman, L.J.; Kremen, W.S.; Pepple, J.R.; Lyons, M.J.; and Tsuang, M.T. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: A diagnostic efficiency analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104:286-304, 1995.
41. Faraone, S.V.; Seidman, L.J.; Kremen, W.S.; Toomey, R.; Pepple, J.R.; and Tsuang, M.T. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: A four-year follow-up study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108:176-181, 1999.
42. Faraone, S.V.; Seidman, L.J.; Kremen, W.S.; Toomey, R.; Pepple, J.R.; and Tsuang, M.T. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: The effect of genetic loading. Biological Psychiatry, 48:120-126, 2000.
43. Faraone, S.V., and Tsuang, M.T. Quantitative models of the genetic transmission of schizophrenia. Psychological Bulletin, 98:41-66, 1985.
44. Feinberg, I. Schizophrenia: Caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17:319-334, 1982.
45. Filipek, P.; Richelme, C.; Kennedy, D.N.; and Caviness, V.S. The young adult human brain: An MRI-based morphometric analysis. Cerebral Cortex, 4:344-360, 1994.
46. Filipek, P.A.; Kennedy, D.N.; Caviness, V.S.; Rossnick, S.L.; Spraggins, T.A.; and Starewicz, P.M. MRI-based brain morphometry: Development and application to normal controls. Annals of Neurology, 25:61-67, 1989.
47. Gilbertson, M.W.; Shenton, M.E.; Ciszewaki, A.; Kasai, K.; Lasko, N.B.; Orr, S.; and Pitman, R.K. Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 11:1242-1247, 2002.
48. Goldstein, J.M.; Goodman, J.M.; Seidman, L.J.; Kennedy, D.N.; Makris, N. ; Lee, H.; Tourville, J.; Caviness, V.S.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Cortical abnormalities in schizophrenia identified by structural magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56:537-547, 1999.
49. Goldstein, J.M.; Seidman, L.J.; Horton, N.J.; Makris, N.; Kennedy, D.N.; Caviness, V.S.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Cerebral Cortex, 11: 490-497, 2001.
50. Goldstein, J.M.; Seidman, L.J.; O'Brien, L.; Horton, N.J.; Kennedy, D.N. ; Makris, N.; Caviness, V.S.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Impact of normal sexual dimorphism on sex differences in structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:154-164, 2002.
51. Goldstein, J.M.; Seidman, L.J.; O'Brien, L.M.; Makris, N.; Price, J.; Caviness, V.S.; Kennedy, D.N.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Genetic vulnerability and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia: Extensive limbic, paralimbic and occipital abnormalities and asymmetries. Submitted for publication.
52. Gottesman, I.I., and McGue, M. Mixed and mixed-up models for the transmission of schizophrenia. In: Cichetti, D., ed. Thinking Clearly About Psychology: Essays in Honor of Paul E. Meehl. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1990.
53. Griffiths, T.D.; Sigmundsson, T.; Takei, N.; Rowe, D.; and Murray, R.M. Neurological abnormalities in familial and sporadic schizophrenia. Brain, 121:191-203, 1998.
54. Gur, R.E.; Cowell, P.; Turetsky, B.I.; Gallacher, F.; Cannon, T.; Bilker, W.; and Gur, R.C. A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia. Relationship of neuroanatomical changes to clinical and neurobehavioral measures. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55:145-152, 1998.
55. Harris, J.G.; Young, D.A.; Rojas, D.C.; Cajade-Law, A.; Scherzinger, A.; Nawroz, S.; Adler, L.E.; Cullum, M.; Simon, J.; and Freedman, R. Increased hippocampal volume in schizophrenics' parents with ancestral history of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 55:11-17, 2002.
56. Harrison, P.J. The neuropathology of schizophrenia: A critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain, 122:593-624, 1999.
57. Havermans, R.; Honig, A.; Vuurman, E.F.; Krabbendam, L.; Wilmink, J.; Lamers, T.; Verheecke, C.J.; Jolles, J.; Romme, M.A.; and van Praag, H.M. A controlled study of temporal lobe structure volumes and P300 responses in schizophrenic patients with persistent auditory hallucinations. Schizophrenia Research, 38:151-158, 1999.
58. Heckers, S. Neuroimaging studies of the hippocampus. Hippocampus, 1:520-528, 2001.
59. Heckers, S., and Konradi, C. Hippocampal neurons in schizophrenia. Journal of Neural Transmission, 109:891-905, 2002.
60. Heinrichs, R.W., and Zakzanis, K.K. Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology, 12:426-445, 1998.
61. Ho, B-C.; Andreasen, N.C.; Nopoulos, P.; Arndt, S.; Magnotta, V.; and Flaum, M. Progressive structural abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60:585-594, 2003.
62. Jastak, J.F., and Jastak, S. Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates, 1985.
63. Jernigan, T.L.; Zisook, S.; Heaton, R.K.; Moranville, J.T.; Hesselink, J.R.; and Braff, D.L. Magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in lenticular nuclei and cerebral cortex in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48:881-890, 1991.
64. Jones, P.B., and Murray, R.M. The genetics of schizophrenia is the genetics of neurodevelopment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158:615-623, 1991.
65. Kasai, K.; Shenton, M.E.; Salisbury, D.F.; Hirayasu, Y.; Lee, C-U.; Ciszewski, A.A.; Yurgelun-Todd, D.; Kikinis, R.; Jolesz, F.A.; and McCarley, R.W. Progressive decrease of left superior temporal gyrus gray matter volume in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160:156-164, 2003.
66. Kawasaki, Y.; Maeda, Y.; Urata, K.; Higashima, M.; Yamaguchi, N.; Suzuki, M.; Takashima, T.; and Ide, Y. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of patients with schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242:268-272, 1993.
67. Kennedy, D.N.; Filipek, P.A.; and Caviness, V.S. Anatomic segmentation and volumetric calculations in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 8:1-7, 1989.
68. Keshavan, M.S.; Anderson, S.; and Pettegrew, J.W. Is schizophrenia due to excessive synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 28:239-265, 1994.
69. Keshavan, M.S.; Dick, E.; Mankowski, I.; Harenski, K.; Montrose, D.M.; Diwadkar, V.; and DeBellis, M. Decreased left amygdala and hippocampal volumes in young offspring at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 58:173-183, 2002a.
70. Keshavan, M.S.; Diwadkar, V.A.; Spencer, S.M.; Harenski, K.A.; Luna, B.; and Sweeney, J.A. A preliminary functional magnetic resonance imaging study in offspring of schizophrenic parents. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 26:1143-1149, 2002b.
71. Keshavan, M.S.; Montrose, D.M.; Pierri, J.N.; Dick, E.L.; Rosenberg, D.; Talagala, L.; and Sweeney, J.A. Magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in offspring at risk for schizophrenia: Preliminary studies. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 21:1285-1295, 1997.
72. Keshavan, M.S.; Stanley, J.A.; Montrose, D.M.; Minshew, N.J.; and Pettegrew, J.W. Prefrontal membrane phospholipid metabolism of child and adolescent offspring at risk for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: An in vivo (31)P MRS study. Molecular Psychiatry, 8:316-323, 2003.
73. Klemm, S.; Rzanny, R.; Riehemann, S.; Volz, H.P.; Schmidt, B.; Gerhard, U.J.; Filz, C.; Schonberg, A.; Mentzel, H.J.; Kaiser, W.A.; and Blanz, B. Cerebral phosphate metabolism in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158:958-960, 2001.
74. Kremen, W.S.; Seidman, L.J.; Faraone, S.V.; Pepple, J.R.; Lyons, M.J.; and Tsuang, M.T. The "3 Rs" and neuropsychological function in schizophrenia: An empirical test of the matching fallacy. Neuropsychology, 10:22-31, 1996.
75. Lawrie, S.M., and Abukmeil, S.S. Brain abnormality in schizophrenia: A systematic and quantitative review of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172:110-120, 1998.
76. Lawrie, S.M.; Whalley, H.; Kestelman, J.N.; Abukmeil, S.S.; Byrne, M.; Hodges, A.; Rimmington, J.E.; Best, J.J.; Owens, D.G.; and Johnstone, E.C. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Lancet, 353:30-33, 1999.
77. Lawrie, S.M.; Whalley, H.C.; Abukmeil, S.S.; Kestelman, J.N.; Donnelly, L.; Miller, P.; Best, J.J.; Owens, D.G.; and Johnstone, E.C. Brain structure, genetic liability, and psychotic symptoms in subjects at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 49:811-823, 2001.
78. Lewis, S.W., and Murray, R.M. Obstetric complications, neurodevelopmental deviance, and risk for schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 21:413-421, 1987.
79. Liddle, P.F., and Pantelis, C. Brain imaging in schizophrenia. In: Hirsch, S.R., and Weinberger, D.R., eds. Schizophrenia. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Science Ltd., 2003. pp. 403-417.
80. Lieberman, J.; Chakos, M.; Wu, H.; Alvir, J.; Hoffman, E.; Robinson, D.; and Bilder, R. Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 49:487-499, 2001.
81. Marcelis, M.; Suckling, J.; Woodruff, P.; Hofman, P.; Bullmore, E.; and van Os, J. Searching for a structural endophenotype in psychosis using computational morphometry. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 122:153-167, 2003.
82. Mathalon, D.H.; Sullivan, E.V.; Lim, K.O.; and Pfefferbaum, A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58:148-157, 2001.
83. McCarley, R.W.; Wible, C.G.; Frumin, M.; Hirayasu, Y.; Levitt, J.J.; Fischer, I.A.; and Shenton, M.E. MRI anatomy of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45:1099-1119, 1999.
84. McEwen, B.S., and Magarinos, A.M. Stress effects on morphology and function of the hippocampus. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821:271-284, 1997.
85. McGorry, P.D.; Yung, A.R.; Phillips, L.J.; Pan Yuen, H.; Francey, S.; Cosgrave, E.M.; Germano, D.; Bravin, J.; McDonald, T.; Blair, A.; Adlard, S.; and Jackson, H. Randomized controlled trial of interventions designed to reduce the risk of progression to first-episode psychosis in a clinical sample with subthreshold symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:921-928, 2002.
86. McGue, M.; Gottesman, I.I.; and Rao, D.C. The transmission of schizophrenia under a multifactorial threshold model. American Journal of Human Genetics, 35:1161-1178, 1983.
87. McNeil, T.F. Perinatal risk factors and schizophrenia: Selective review and methodological concerns. Epidemiology Reviews, 17:107-112, 1995.
88. Mednick, S.A. Breakdown in individuals at high risk for schizophrenia: Possible predisposing perinatal factors. Mental Hygiene, 54:50-63, 1970.
89. Mesulam, M-M. Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis and Company, 1985.
90. Nelson, M.D.; Saykin, A.J.; Flashman, L.A.; and Riordan, H.J. Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: A meta-analytic study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55:433-440, 1998.
91. Nolte, J. The Human Brain: An Introduction to Its Functional Anatomy. 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1999.
92. Nurnberger, J.I.; Blehar, M.C.; Kaufmann, C.A.; York-Cooler, C.; Simpson, S.G.; Harkavy-Friedman, J.; Severe, J.B.; Malaspina, D.; and Reich, T. Diagnostic interview for genetic studies: Rationale, unique features, and training. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51:849-859, 1994.
93. O'Driscoll, G.A.; Florencio, P.S.; Gagnon, D.; Wolff, A.V.; Benkelfat, C.; Mikula, L.; Lal, S.; and Evans, A.C. Amygdala-hippocampal volume and verbal memory in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research, 107:75-85, 2001.
94. Ohnuma, T.; Kimura, M.; Takahashi, T.; Iwamoto, N.; and Arai, H. A magnetic resonance imaging study in first-episode disorganized-type patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 51:9-15, 1997.
95. Olin, S.S., and Mednick, S.A. Risk factors of psychosis: Identifying vulnerable populations premorbidly. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22(2):223-240, 1996.
96. Pantelis, C.; Velakoulis, D.; McGorry, P.D.; Wood, S.J.; Suckling, J.; Phillips, L.J.; Yung, A.R.; Bullmore, E.T.; Brewer, W.; Soulsby, B.; Desmond, P.; and McGuire, P.K. Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after the onset of psychosis: A cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet, 361:281-288, 2003.
97. Papez, J.W. A proposed mechanism of emotion. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 38:725-743, 1937.
98. Parsons, L.M., and Osherson, D. New evidence for distinct right and left brain systems for deductive versus probabilistic reasoning. Cerebral Cortex, 11:954-965, 2001.
99. Pearlson, G.D.; Barta, P.E.; Powers, R.E.; Menon, R.R.; Richards, S.S.; Aylward, E.H.; Federman, E.B.; Chase, G.A.; Petty, R.G.; and Tien, A.Y. Medial and superior temporal gyral volumes and cerebral asymmetry in schizophrenia versus bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 41:1-14, 1997.
100. Phillips, L.J.; Velakoulis, D.; Pantelis, C.; Wood, S.; Yuen, H.P.; Yung, A.R.; Desmond, P.; Brewer, W.; and McGorry, P.D. Non-reduction in hippocampal volume is associated with higher risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 58:145-158, 2002.
101. Razi, K.; Greene, K.P.; Sakuma, M.; Ge, S.; Kushner, M.; and DeLisi, L.E. Reduction of the parahippocampal gyrus and the hippocampus in patients with chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174:512-519, 1999.
102. Rosene, D.L., and van Hoesen, G.W. The hippocampal formation of the primate brain: A review of some comparative aspects of cytoarchitecture and connections. In: Jones, E.G., and Peters, A., eds. Cerebral Cortex. Vol. 6. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1987. pp. 345-456.
103. Rosso, I.M.; Cannon, T.D.; Huttunen, T.; Huttunen, M.O.; Lonnqvist, J.; and Gasperoni, T.L. Obstetric risk factors for early-onset schizophrenia in a Finnish birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157:801-807, 2000.
104. Sacker, A.; Done, D.J.; and Crow, T.J. Obstetric complications in children born to parents with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of case-control studies. Psychological Medicine, 26:279-287, 1996.
105. Sanfilipo, M.; Lafargue, T.; Arena, L.; Rusinek, H.; Kushner, K.; Lautin, A.; Loneragan, C.; Vaid, G.; Rotrosen, J.; and Wolkin, A. Fine volumetric analysis of the cerebral ventricular system in schizophrenia: Further evidence for multifocal mild to moderate enlargement. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26(1):201-216, 2000.
106. Schacter, D.L., and Wagner, A.D. Medial temporal lobe activations in fMRI and PET studies of episodic encoding and retrieval. Hippocampus, 9:7-24, 1999.
107. Schreiber, H.; Baur-Seack, K.; Kornhuber, H.H.; Wallner, B.; Friedrich, J.M.; De Winter, I.M.; and Born, J. Brain morphology in adolescents at genetic risk for schizophrenia assessed by qualitative and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging. Schizophrenia Research, 40:81-84, 1999.
108. Schulze, K.; McDonald, C.; Frangou, S.; Sham, P.; Grech, A.; Toulopoulou, T.; Walshe, M.; Sharma, T.; Sigmundsson, T.; Taylor, M.; and Murray, R.M. Hippocampal volume in familial and nonfamilial schizophrenic probands and their unaffected relatives. Biological Psychiatry, 53:562-570, 2003.
109. Seidman, L.J. Clinical neuroscience and epidemiology of schizophrenia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 3:338-342, 1997.
110. Seidman, L.J.; Faraone, S.V.; Goldstein, J.M.; Goodman, J.M.; Kremen, W.S.; Matsuda, G.; Hoge, E.A.; Kennedy, D.; Makris, N.; Caviness, V.S.; and Tsuang, M.T. Reduced subcortical brain volumes in nonpsychotic siblings of schizophrenic patients: A pilot MRI study. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74:507-514, 1997.
111. Seidman, L.J.; Faraone, S.V.; Goldstein, J.M.; Goodman, J.M.; Kremen, W.S.; Toomey, R.; Tourville, J.; Kennedy, D.; Makris, N.; Caviness, V.S.; and Tsuang, M.T. Thalamic and amygdala-hippocampal volume reductions in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia: An MRI-based morphometric analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 46:941-954, 1999.
112. Seidman, L.J.; Faraone, S.V.; Goldstein, J.M.; Kremen, W.S.; Horton, N.J.; Makris, N.; Toomey, R.; Kennedy, D.; Caviness, V.S.; and Tsuang, M.T. Left hippocampal volume as a vulnerability indicator for schizophrenia: An MRI morphometric study of non-psychotic first degree relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59:839-849, 2002.
113. Seidman, L.J.; Goldstein, J.M.; Makris, N.; Horton, N.J.; O'Brien, L.; Kennedy, D.N.; Caviness, V.S.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Structural brain abnormalities in subcortical brain regions in schizophrenia identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Submitted for publication.
114. Seidman, L.J.; Stone, W.S.; Jones, R.; Harrison, R.H.; and Mirsky, A.F. Comparative effects of schizophrenia and temporal lobe epilepsy on memory. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4:342-352, 1998.
115. Seidman, L.J., and Wencel, H.E. Genetically mediated brain abnormalities in schizophrenia. Current Psychiatry Reports, 5:135-144, 2003.
116. Seidman, L.J.; Wencel, H.E.; McDonald, C.; Murray, R.; and Tsuang, M.T. Neuroimaging studies of non-psychotic first degree relatives of people with schizophrenia: Toward a neurobiology of vulnerability to schizophrenia ("schizotaxia"). In: Stone, W.S.; Faraone, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T., eds. Early Clinical Intervention and Prevention of Schizophrenia. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, in press.
117. Selemon, L.D., and Goldman-Rakic, P.S. The reduced neuropil hypothesis: A circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45:17-25, 1999.
118. Sharma, T.; Lancaster, E.; Lee, D.; Lewis, S.; Sigmundsson, T.; Takei, N.; Gurling, H.; Barta, P.; Pearlson, G.; and Murray, R. Brain changes in schizophrenia: Volumetric MRI study of families multiply affected with schizophrenia - the Maudsley Family Study 5. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173:132-138, 1998.
119. Sharma, T.; Lancaster, E.; Sigmundsson, T.; Lewis, S.; Takei, N.; Gurling, H.; Barta, P.; Pearlson, G.; and Murray, R. Lack of normal pattern of cerebral asymmetry in familial schizophrenic patients and their relatives - the Maudsley Family Study. Schizophrenia Research, 40:111-120, 1999.
120. Shastel, D.L.; Gur, R.E.; Mozley, P.D.; Richards, J.; Taleff, M.M.; Heimberg, C.; Gallacher, F.; and Gur, R.C. Volunteers for biomedical research. Recruitment and screening of normal controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48:1022-1025, 1991.
121. Shenton, M.E.; Dickey, C.C.; Frumin, M.; and McCarley, R.W. A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 49:1-52, 2001.
122. Shenton, M.E.; Kikinis, R.; Jolesz, F.A.; Pollak, S.D.; LeMay, M.; Wible, C.G.; Hokama, H.; Martin, J.; Metcalf, D.; Coleman, M.; and McCarley, R.W. Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. New England Journal of Medicine, 327:604-612, 1992.
123. Smith, G.N.; Lang, D.J.; Kopala, L.C.; Lapoint, J.S.; Falkai, P.; and Honer, W.G. Developmental abnormalities of the hippocampus in first episode schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 53:555-561, 2003.
124. Spitzer, R., and Endicott, J. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). New York, NY: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1978.
125. Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.W.; and Gibbon, M. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders (SCID-II). New York, NY: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1987.
126. Squire, L.R., and Zola-Morgan, S. The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science, 253:1380-1386, 1991.
127. Staal, W.G.; Hulshoff, H.E.; Schnack, H.; Van der Schot, A.C.; and Kahn, R.S. Partial volume decrease of the thalamus in relatives of patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:1784-1786, 1998.
128. Staal, W.G.; Hulshoff Pol, H.E.; Schnack, H.; Hoogendoorn, M.L.; Jellema, K.; and Kahn, R.S. Structural brain abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and their siblings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157:416-421, 2000.
129. Stangl, D., and Zimmerman, S. Structured Interview for DSM-III Personality Disorders. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa, 1983.
130. Steel, R.M.; Whalley, H.C.; Miller, P.; Best, J.J.K.; Johnstone, E.C.; and Lawrie, S.M. Structural MRI of the brain in presumed carriers of genes for schizophrenia, and their affected and unaffected siblings. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 72:455-458, 2002.
131. Stefanis, N.; Frangou, S.; Yakeley, J.; Sharma, T.; O'Connell, P.; Morgan, K.; Sigmudsson, T.; Taylor, M.; and Murray, R. Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia: Effects of genetic risk and pregnancy and birth complications. Biological Psychiatry, 46:697-702, 1999.
132. Suddath, R.L.; Christison, G.W.; Torrey, E.F.; Casanova, M.F.; and Weinberger, D.R. Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 332:789-800, 1990.
133. Thompson, P.M.; Vidal, C.; Giedd, J.N.; Gochman, P.; Blumenthal, J.; Nicolson, R.; Toga, A.W.; and Rapaoport, J.L. Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98:11650-11655, 2001.
134. Torrey, E.F., and Peterson, M.R. Schizophrenia and the limbic system. Lancet, 19:942-946, 1974.
135. Tsuang, M.T., and Faraone, S.V. The case for heterogeneity in the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 17:161-175, 1995.
136. Tsuang, M.T.; Faraone, S.V.; and Lyons, M.J. Identification of the phenotype in psychiatric genetics. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 243:131-142, 1993.
137. Tsuang, M.T.; Fleming, J.A.; Kendler, K.S.; and Gruenberg, A.M. Selection of controls for family studies: Biases and implications. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45:1006-1008, 1988.
138. Tsuang, M.T.; Seidman, L.J.; and Faraone, S.V. New approaches to the genetics of schizophrenia: Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies of nonpsychotic first degree relatives of people with schizophrenia. In: Gattaz, W.F., and Hafner, H., eds. The Fourth Symposium on the Search for the Causes of Schizophrenia. Vol. 4. Balance of the Century. Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin, Inc., 1999a. pp. 191-207.
139. Tsuang, M.T.; Stone, W.S.; and Faraone, S.V. Schizophrenia: A review of genetic studies. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 7:185-207, 1999b.
140. Tsuang, M.T.; Stone, W.S.; Seidman, L.J.; Faraone, S.V.; Zimmet, S.; Wojcik, J.; Kelleher, J.P.; and Green, A.I. Treatment of nonpsychotic relatives of patients with schizophrenia: Four case studies. Biological Psychiatry, 45:1412-1418, 1999c.
141. Van Erp, T.G.; Saleh, P.A.; Rosso, I.M.; Huttunen, M.; Lonnqvist, J.; Pirkola, T.; Salonen, O.; Valanne, L.; Poutanen, V.P.; Standertskjold-Nordenstam, C.G.; and Cannon, T.D. Contributions of genetic risk and fetal hypoxia to hippocampal volume in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, their unaffected siblings and healthy unrelated
142. Velakoulis, D.; Pantelis, C.; McGorry, P.D.; Dudgeon, P.; Brewer, W.; Cook, M.; Desmond, P.; Bridle, N.; Tierney, P.; Murrie, V.; Sing, B.; and Copolov, D. Hippocampal volume in first episode psychoses and chronic schizophrenia: A high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56:133-141, 1999.
143. Vincent, K.R.; Castillo, I.M.; Hauser, R.I.; Zapata, J.A.; Stuart, H.J.; Cohn, C.K.; and O'Shanick, G.J. MMP1-168 Codebook. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1984.
144. Wagner, A.D. Working memory contributions to human learning and remembering. Neuron, 22:19-22, 1999.
145. Wechsler, D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Revised Manual. New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation, 1981.
146. Wechsler, D. Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised Manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation, 1987.
147. Weinberger, D.R. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44:660-669, 1987.
148. Weinberger, D.R. Cell biology of the hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45:395-402, 1999.
149. Wible, C.G.; Shenton, M.E.; Hokama, H.; Kikinis, R.; Jolesz, F.A.; Metcalf, D.; and McCarley, R.W. Prefrontal cortex and schizophrenia: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52:279-288, 1995.
150. Wood, S.J.; Velakoulis, D.; Smith, D.J.; Bond, D.; Stuart, G.W.; McGorry, P.D.; Brewer, W.J.; Bridle, N.; Eritaia, J.; Desmond, P.; Singh, B.; Copolov, D.; and Pantelis, C. A longitudinal study of hippocampal volume in first episode psychosis and chronic schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 52:37-46, 2001.
151. Woods, B.T. Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:1661-1670, 1998.
152. Wright, I.C.; Rabe-Hesketh, S.; Woodruff, P.W.R.; David, A.S.; Murray, R.M.; and Bullmore, E.T. Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157:16-25, 2000.
153. Yücel, M.; Wood, S.; Phillips, L.J.; Stuart, G.W.; Smith, D.J.; Yung, A.; Velakoulis, D.; McGorry, P.D.; and Pantelis, C. Morphology of the anterior cingulate cortex in young men at ultra high-risk of developing a psychotic illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182:518-524, 2003.
154. Yung, A.R., and McGorry, P.D. The prodromal phase of first-episode psychosis: Past and current conceptualizations. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22(2):353-370, 1996.
155. Zubin, J., and Spring, B. Vulnerability: A new view of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86:103-126, 1977.