DNA methylation: Its role in lung carcinogenesis and therapeutic implications

Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 667-679

  Santos, Edgardo S ^a   Raez, Luis E ^b   DeCesare, Teresa ^b   Singal, Rakesh ^c  

^a TULANE UNIVERSITY HEALTH SCIENCES CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Carcinogenesis; CpG island; DNA methylation; Epigenetic; Gene silencing; Histone deacetylase inhibitor; Hypermethylation; Non small cell lung cancer; Promoter methylation

Indexed keywords

5 AZA 2' DEOXYCYTIDINE; 5,6 DIHYDROAZACITIDINE; ADENOVIRUS VECTOR; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ANTISENSE OLIGODEOXYNUCLEOTIDE; AZACITIDINE; CISPLATIN; CYTIDINE DEAMINASE; DEATH ASSOCIATED PROTEIN KINASE; DEPSIPEPTIDE; DNA METHYLTRANSFERASE; DOCETAXEL; FAZARABINE; FR 901228; GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; HISTONE; HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITOR; PROTEIN P16INK4A; RAS ASSOCIATION DOMAIN FAMILY PROTEIN 1A; SELENOMETHIONINE SE 75; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR GATA 1; ZEBULARINE;

ACETYLATION; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; CPG ISLAND; DIARRHEA; DISEASE COURSE; DNA DAMAGE; DNA METHYLATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG TARGETING; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; ENZYME INHIBITION; FATIGUE; FEVER; GENE MUTATION; GENE SILENCING; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GRANULOCYTOPENIA; HUMAN; IN VIVO STUDY; LEUKEMIA; LEUKOPENIA; LUNG CANCER; LUNG CARCINOGENESIS; LUNG NON SMALL CELL CANCER; MALAISE; MALIGNANT MESOTHELIOMA; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROME; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NEUTROPENIA; PROMOTER REGION; PROSTATE CANCER; PROTEIN BINDING; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN TARGETING; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE;

APOPTOSIS REGULATORY PROTEINS; CA(2+)-CALMODULIN DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE; CELL TRANSFORMATION, NEOPLASTIC; CLINICAL TRIALS; CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P16; DNA METHYLATION; HUMANS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; MUTATION; PROMOTER REGIONS (GENETICS); SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TRANSCRIPTION, GENETIC; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEINS;

EID: 24044476826     PISSN: 14737140     EISSN: 17448328     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14737140.5.4.667     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Mountain CF. Revisions in the International System for Staging Lung Cancer. Chest 111(6), 1710-1717 (1997).
2. Rosell R, Monzo M, O'Brate A, Taron M. Translational oncogenomics: toward rational therapeutic decision-making. Curr. Opin. Oncol. 14(2), 171-179 (2002).
3. Niklinska W, Chyczewski L, Niklinski J. New molecular approaches to lung cancer: biological and clinical implications of P53, P16 and K-RAS studies. Folia Histochem. Cytobiol. 39(2), 99-103 (2001).
4. Silva JM, Dominguez G, Silva J et al. Detection of epithelial messenger RNA in the plasma of breast cancer patients is associated with poor prognosis tumor characteristics. Clin. Cancer Res. 7, 2821-2825 (2001).
5. Sozzi G, Conte D, Mariani L et al. Analysis of circulating tumor DNA in plasma at diagnosis and during follow-up of lung cancer patients. Cancer Res. 61, 4675-4678 (2001).
6. Fujiwara K, Fujimoto N, Tabata M et al. Identification of epigenetic aberrant promoter methylation in serum DNA is useful for early detection of lung cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 11(3), 1219-1225 (2005).
7. Niklinski J, Hirsch FR. Molecular approaches to lung cancer evaluation. Lung Cancer 38(Suppl. 3), S9-S17 (2002).
8. Kopelovich L, Crowell JA, Fay JR. The epigenome as a target for cancer chemoprevention. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95(23), 1747-1757 (2003).
9. Baylin SB, Hoppener JW, de Bustros A, Steenbergh PH, Lips CJ, Nelkin BD. DNA methylation patterns of the calcitonin gene in human lung cancers and lymphomas. Cancer Res. 46(6), 2917-2922 (1986).
10. Esteller M, Corn PG, Baylin SB et al. A gene hypermethylation profile of human cancer. Cancer Res. 61(8), 3225-3229 (2001).
11. Zochbauer-Muller S, Fong KM, Maitra A et al. 5′ CpG island methylation of the FHIT gene is correlated with loss of gene expression in lung and breast cancer. Cancer Res. 61(9), 3581-3585 (2001).
12. Herman JG. Hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes in cancer. Semin. Cancer Biol. 9(5), 359-367 (1999).
13. Chen RZ, Pettersson U, Beard C, Jackson-Grusby L, Jaenisch R. DNA hypomethylation leads to elevated mutation rates. Nature 395(6697), 89-93 (1998).
14. Eden S, Cedar H. Role of DNA methylation in the regulation of transcription. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 4(2), 255-259 (1994).
15. Lengauer C, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. DNA methylation and genetic instability in colorectal cancer cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94(6), 2545-2550 (1997).
16. Merlo A, Herman JG, Mao L et al. 5′CPG island methylation is associated with transcriptional silencing of the tumour suppressor p16/CDKN2/MTS1 in human cancers. Nature Med. 1(7), 686-692 (1995).
17. Sakai T, Toguchida J, Ohtani N, Yandell DW, Rapaport JM, Dryja TP. Allele-specific hypermethylation of the retinoblastoma tumor-suppressor gene. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 48(5), 880-888 (1991).
18. Jones PA, Laird PW. Cancer epigenetics comes of age. Nature Genet. 21(2), 163-167 (1999).
19. Ohtani-Fujita N, Fujita T, Aoike A, Osifchin NE, Robbins PD, Sakai T. CpG methylation inactivates the promoter activity of the human retinoblastoma tumor-suppressor gene. Oncogene 8(4), 1063-1067 (1993).
20. Lee WH, Morton RA, Epstein JI et al. Cytidine methylation of regulatory sequences near the pi-class glutathione S-transferase gene accompanies human prostatic carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(24), 11733-11737 (1994).
21. Myeroff LL, Parsons R, Kim SJ et al. A transforming growth factor β receptor Type II gene mutation common in colon and gastric but rare in endometrial cancers with microsatellite instability. Cancer Res. 55(23), 5545-5547 (1995).
22. Herman JG, Merlo A, Mao L et al. Inactivation of the CDKN2/p16/MTS1 gene is frequently associated with aberrant DNA methylation in all common human cancers. Cancer Res. 55(20), 4525-4530 (1995).
23. Jones PA. DNA methylation errors and cancer. Cancer Res. 56(11), 2463-2467 (1996).
24. Gomyo Y, Sasaki J, Branch C, Roth JA, Mukhopadhyay T. 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine upregulates caspase-9 expression co-operating with p53-induced apoptosis in human lung cancer cells. Oncogene 23(40), 6779-6787 (2004).
25. Suzuki M, Hao C, Takahashi T et al. Aberrant methylation of SPARC in human lung cancers. Br. J. Cancer 92(5), 942-948 (2005).
26. Otterson GA, Khleif SN, Chen W, Coxon AB, Kaye FJ. CDKN2 gene silencing in lung cancer by DNA hypermethylation and kinetics of p16INK4 protein induction by 5-aza 2′deoxycytidine. Oncogene 11(6), 1211-1216 (1995).
27. Tzao C, Tsai HY, Chen JT, Chen CY, Wang YC. 5′ CpG island hypermethylation and aberrant transcript splicing both contribute to the inactivation of FHIT gene in resected non-small cell lung cancer. Eur. J. Cancer 40(14), 2175-2183 (2004).
28. Deiss LP, Feinstein E, Berissi H et al. Identification of a novel serine/threonine kinase and a novel 15-kD protein as potential mediatiors of the gamma interferon-induced cell death. Genes Dev. 9(1), 15-30 (1995).
29. Inbal B, Cohen O, Polak-Charcon S et al. DAP kinase links the control of apoptosis to metastasis. Nature 390(6656), 180-184 (1997).
30. Tang X, Khuri FR, Lee JJ et al. Hypermethylation of the death-associated protein (DAP) kinase promoter and aggressiveness in stage I non-small cell lung cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92(18), 1511-1516 (2000).
31. Lu C, Soria JC, Tang X et al. Prognostic factors in resected stage I non-small cell lung cancer: a multivariate analysis of six molecular markers. J. Clin. Oncol. 22(22), 4575-4583 (2004).
32. Kim DH, Nelson HH, Wiencke JK et al. Promoter methylation of DAP-kinase: association with advanced stage in non-small cell lung cancer. Oncogene 20(14), 1765-1770 (2001).
33. Bigey P, Ramchandani S, Theberge J, Araujo FD, Szyf M. Transcriptional regulation of the human DNA methyltransferase (dnmt1) gene. Gene 242(1-2), 407-418 (2000).
34. Rouleau J, MacLeod AR, Szyf M. Regulation of the DNA methyltransferase by the Ras-AP-1 signaling pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 270(4), 1595-1601 (1995).
35. Pulling LC, Divine KK, Klinge DM et al. Promoter hypermethylation of the O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase gene: more common in lung adenocarcinomas from never-smokers than smokers and associated with tumor progression. Cancer Res. 63(16), 4842-4848 (2003).
36. Divine KK, Pulling LC, Marron-Terada PG et al. Multiplicity of abnormal promoter methylation in lung adenocarcinomas from smokers and never smokers. Int. J. Cancer 114(3), 400-405 (2005).
37. Brauch H, Johnson B, Hovis J et al. Molecular analysis of the short arm of chromosome 3 in small-cell and non-small cell lung carcinoma of the lung. N. Engl. J. Med. 317(18), 1109-1113 (1987).
38. Marsit CJ, Kim DH, Liu M et al. Hypermethylation of RASSF1A and BLU tumor suppressor genes in non-small cell lung cancer: Implications for tobacco smoking during adolescence. Int. J. Cancer 114(2), 219-223 (2005).
39. Burbee DG, Forgacs E, Zochbauer-Muller S et al. Epigenetic inactivation of RASSF1A in lung and breast cancers and malignant phenotype suppression. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 93(9), 691-699 (2001).
40. Tomizawa Y, Kohno T, Kondo H et al. Clinicopathological significance of epigenetic inactivation of RASSF1A at 3p21.3 in stage I lung adenocarcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 8(7), 2362-2368 (2002).
41. Ortiz-Vega S, Khokhlatchev A, Nedwidek M et al. The putative tumor suppressor RASSF1A homodimerizes and heterodimerizes with the Ras-GTP binding protein Nore1. Oncogene 21(9), 1381-1390 (2002).
42. Shivakumar L, Minna J, Sakamaki T, Restell R, White MA. The RASSF1A tumor suppressor blocks cell cycle progression and inhibits cyclin D1 accumulation. Mol. Cell Biol. 22(12), 4309-4318 (2002).
43. Khokhlatchev A, Rabizadeh S, Xavier R et al. Identification of a novel Ras-regulated proapoptotic pathway. Curr. Biol. 12(4), 253-265 (2002).
44. Liu L, Tommasi S, Lee DH, Dammann R, Pfeifer GP. Control of microtubule stability by the RASSF1A tumor suppressor. Oncogene 22(50), 8125-8136 (2003).
45. Irimia M, Fraga MF, Sanchez-Cespedes M, Esteller M. CpG island promoter hypermethylation of the Ras-effector gene NORE1A occurs in the context of a wild type K-ras in lung cancer. Oncogene 23(53), 8695-8699 (2004).
46. Kim DH, Kim JS, Ji YI et al. Hypermethylation of RASSF1A promoter is associated with the age at starting smoking and a poor prognosis in primary non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res. 63(13), 3743-3746 (2003).
47. Wang J, Lee JJ, Wang L et al. Value of p16INK4a and RASSF1A promoter hypermethylation in prognosis of patients with resectable non-small cell lung cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 10(18 Pt 1), 6119-6125 (2004).
48. Endoh H, Yatabe Y, Shimizu S et al. RASSF1A gene inactivation in non-small cell lung cancer and its clinical implication. Int. J. Cancer 106(1), 45-51 (2003).
49. Koh J, Enders GH, Dynlacht BD, Harlow E. Tumour-derived p16 alleles encoding proteins defective in cell-cycle inhibition. Nature 375(6531), 506-510 (1995).
50. Zhang HS, Postigo AA, Dean DC. Active transcriprional repression by the Rb-E2F complex mediates G1 arrest triggered by p16INK4a, TGFbeta, and contact inhibition. Cell 97(1), 53-61 (1999).
51. Toyooka S, Toyooka KO, Maruyama R et al. DNA methylation profiles of lung tumors. Mol. Cancer Ther. 1(1), 61-67 (2001).
52. Zochbauer-Muller S, Fong KM, Virmani AK, Geradts J, Gazdar AF, Minna JD. Aberrant promoter methylation of multiple genes in non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res. 61(1), 249-255 (2001).
53. Esteller S, Corn PG, Baylin SB, Herman JG. A gene hypermethylation profile of human cancer. Cancer Res. 61(8), 3225-3229 (2001).
54. Kaye FJ. RB and cyclin dependent kinase pathways: defining a distinction between RB and P16 loss in lung cancer. Oncogene 21(45), 6908-6914 (2002).
55. Kim DH, Nelson HH, Wiencke JK et al. p16(INK4a) and histology-specific methylation of CpG islands by exposure to tobacco smoke in non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res. 61, 3419-3424 (2001).
56. Hsieh CJ, Klump B, Hoizmann K, Borchard F, Gregor M, Porschen R. Hypermethylation of the p16INK4a promoter in colectomy specimens of patients with long-standing and extensive ulcerative colitis. Cancer Res. 58(17), 3942-3945 (1998).
57. Belinsky SA, Nikula K, Palmisano WA et al. Aberrant methylation of p16(INK4a) is an early event in lung cancer and a potential biomarker for early diagnosis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95(20), 11891-11896 (1998).
58. Belinsky SA, Palmisano WA, Gilliland FD et al. Aberrant promoter methylation in bronchial epithelium and sputum from current and former smokers. Cancer Res. 62(8), 2370-2377 (2002).
59. Toyooka S, Suzuki M, Maruyama R et al. The relationship between aberrant methylation and survival in non-small-cell lung cancers. Br. J. Cancer 91(4), 771-774 (2004).
60. Akiyama Y, Watkins N, Suzuki H et al. GATA-4 and GATA-5 transcription factor genes and potential downstream antitumor target genes are epigenetically silenced in colorectal and gastric cancer. Mol. Cell Biol. 23(23), 8429-8439 (2003).
61. Gao X, Sedgwick T, Shi YB, Evans T. Distinct functions are implicated for the GATA-4, -5, and -6 transcription factors in the regulation of intestine epithelial cell differentiation. Mol. Cell Biol. 18(5), 2901-2911 (1998).
62. Orkin SH. Diversification of haematopoietic stem cells to specific lineages. Nature Rev. Genet. 1(1), 57-64 (2000).
63. Zochbauer-Muller S, Minna JD, Gazdar AF. Aberrant DNA methylation in lung cancer: biological and clinical implications. Oncologist 7(5), 451-457 (2002).
64. Chen D, Zhang G. Enforced expression of the GATA-3 transcription factor affects cell fate decisions in hematopoeisis. Exp. Hematol. 29(8), 971-980 (2001).
65. Fujimaki S, Harigae H, Sugawara T, Takasawa N, Sasaki T, Kaku M. Decreased expression of transcription factor GATA-2 in haematopoietic stem cells in patients with aplastic anaemia. Br. J. Haematol. 113(1), 52-57 (2001).
66. Shimizu R, Takahashi S, Ohneda K, Engel JD, Yamamoto M. In vivo requirements for GATA-1 functional domains during primitive and definitive erythropoiesis. EMBO J. 20(18), 5250-5260 (2001).
67. Guo M, Akiyama Y, House MG et al. Hypermethylation of the GATA Genes in Lung Cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 10(23), 7917-7924 (2004).
68. Chen Y, Huhn D, Knosel T, Pacyna-Gengelbach M, Deutschmann N, Petersen I. Downregulation of connexin 26 in human lung cancer is related promoter methylation. Int. J. Cancer 113(1), 14-21 (2005).
69. Dunn JR, Panutsopulos D, Shaw MW et al. METH-2 silencing and promoter hypermethylation in NSCLC. Br. J. Cancer 91(6), 1149-1154 (2004).
70. Ramsahoye BH, Biniszkiewicz D, Lyko F, Clark V, Bird AP, Jaenisch R. Non-CpG methylation is prevalent in embryonic stem cells and may be mediated by DNA methyltransferase 3a. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97(10), 5237-5242 (2000).
71. Antequera F, Bird A. CpG islands. EXS 64, 169-185 (1993).
72. Bird AP. CpG-rich islands and the function ofDNA methylation. Nature 321(6067), 209-213 (1986).
73. Antequera F, Bird A. Number of CpG islands and genes in human and mouse. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 90(24), 11995-11999 (1993).
74. Cross SH, Bird AP. CpG islands and genes. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 5(3), 309-314 (1995).
75. Das PM, Singal R. DNA methylation and cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 22(22), 4632-4642 (2004).
76. Robertson KD. DNA methylation and chromatin: unraveling the tangled web. Oncogene 21(35), 5361-5379 (2002).
77. Costello JF, Plass C. Methylation matters. J. Med. Genet. 38(5), 285-303 (2001).
78. Szyf M. Targeting DNA methylation in cancer. Ageing Res. Rev. 2(3), 299-328 (2003).
79. Fremont M, Siegmann M, Gaulis S, Matthies R, Hess D, Jost JP. Demethylation of DNA by purified chick embryo 5-methylcytosine-DNA glycosylase requires both protein and RNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 25(12), 2375-2380 (1997).
80. Bhattacharya SK, Ramchandani S, Cervoni N, Szyf M. A mammalian protein with specific demethylase activity for mCpG DNA. Nature 397(6720), 579-583 (1999).
81. Jones PA, Laird PW. Cancer epigenetics comes of age. Nature Genet. 21(2), 163-167 (1999).
82. Rhee I, Bachman KE, Park BH et al. DNMT1 and DNMT3b co-operate to silence genes in human cancer cells. Nature 416(6880), 552-556 (2002).
83. Lee WH, Morton RA, Epstein JI et al. Cytidine methylation of regulatory sequences near the pi-class glutathione S-transferase gene accompanies human prostatic carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(24), 11733-11737 (1994).
84. Melki JR, Vincent PC, Clark SJ. Concurrent DNA hypermethylation of multiple genes in acute myeloid leukemia. Cancer Res. 59(15), 3730-3740 (1999).
85. Goffin J, Eisenhauer E. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors-state of the art. Ann. Oncol. 13(11), 1699-1716 (2002).
86. Cheng JC, Matsen CB, Gonzales FA et al. Inhibition of DNA methylation and reactivation of silenced genes by zebularine. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95(5), 399-409 (2003).
87. Thiagalingam S, Cheng KH, Lee HJ, Mineva N, Thiagalingam A, Ponte JF. Histone deacetylases: Unique players in shaping the epigenetic histone code. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 983, 84-100 (2003).
88. Marks PA, Richon VM, Kelly WK, Chiao JH, Miller T. Histone deacetylase inhibitors: development as cancer therapy. Novartis Found. Symp. 259, 269-281 (2004).
89. Lubbert M. DNA methylation inhibitors in the treatment of leukemias, myelodysplastic syndromes and hemoglobinopathies: clinical results and possible mechanisms of action. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 249, 135-164 (2000).
90. Santini V, Kantarjian HM, Issa JP. Changes in DNA methylation in neoplasia: Pathophysiology and therapeutic implications. Ann. Intern. Med. 134(7), 573-586 (2001).
91. Juttermann R, Li E, Jaenisch R. Toxicity of 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine to mammalian cells is mediated primarily by covalent trapping of DNA methyltransferase rather than DNA demethylation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(25), 11797-11801 (1994).
92. D'Incalci M, Covey JM, Zaharko DS, Kohn KW. DNA alkali-labile sites induced by incorporation of 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine into DNA of mouse leukemia L1210 cells. Cancer Res. 45(7), 3197-3202 (1985).
93. Robert MF, Morin S, Beaulieu N et al. DNMT1 is required to maintain CpG methylation and aberrant gene silencing in human cancer cells. Nature Genet. 33(1), 61-65 (2003).
94. Cameron EE, Bachman KE, Myohanen S, Herman JG, Baylin SB. Synergy of demethylation and histone deacetylase inhibition in the re-expression of genes silenced in cancer. Nature Genet. 21(1), 103-107 (1999).
95. Lemaire M, Momparler LF, Bernstein ML, Marquez VE, Momparler RL. Enhancement of antineoplastic actino of 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine by zebularine on L1210 leukemia. Anticancer Drugs 16(3), 301-308 (2005).
96. Steiner FA, Hong JA, Fischette MR et al. Sequential 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine/depsipeptide FK228 treatment induces tissue factor pathway inhibitor 2 (TFPI-2) expression in cancer cells. Oncogene 24(14), 2386-2397 (2005).
97. Cheng JC, Matsen CB, Gonzales FA et al. Inhibition of DNA methylation and reactivation of silenced genes by zebularine. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95(5), 399-409 (2003).
98. Schwartsmann G, Schunemann H, Gorini CN et al. A Phase I trial of cisplatin plus decitabine, a new DNA-hypomethylating agent, in patients with advanced solid tumors and a follow-up early Phase II evaluation in patients with inoperable non-small cell lung cancer. Invest. New Drugs 18(1), 83-91 (2000).
99. Momparler RL, Bouffard DY, Momparler LF, Dionne J, Belanger K, Ayoub J. Pilot Phase I-II study on 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (Decitabine) in patients with metastatic lung cancer. Anticancer Drugs 8(4), 358-368 (1997).
100. Samuels BL, Herndon JE 2nd, Harmon DC et al. Dihydro-5-azacytidine and cisplatin in the treatment of malignant mesothelioma. Cancer 82(8), 1578-1584 (1998).
101. Williamson SK, Crowley JJ, Livingston RB, Panella TJ, Goodwin JW. Phase II trial and cost analysis of fazarabine in advanced non-small cell carcinoma of the lung: a Southwest Oncology Group study. Invest. New Drugs 13(1), 67-71 (1995).
102. Belinsky SA. Gene-promoter hypermethylation as a biomarker in lung cancer. Nature Rev. Cancer 4 (9), 707-717 (2004).
103. Fleming J, Ghose A, Harrison PR. Molecular mechanisms of cancer prevention by selenium compounds. Nutr. Cancer 40(1), 42-49 (2001).
104. Fiala ES, Staretz ME, Pandya GA, El-Bayoumy K, Hamilton SR. Inhibition of DNA cytosine methyltransferase by chemopreventive selenium compounds, determined by an improved assay for DNA cytosine methyltransferase and DNA cytosine methylation. Carcinogenesis 19(4), 597-604 (1998).
105. Samlowski WE, Leachman SA, Wade M et al. Evaluation of a 7-day continuous intravenous infusion of decitabine: inhibition of promoter-specific and global genomic DNA methylation. J Clin. Oncol. 23(17), 3897-3905 (2005).
106. Strathdee G, MacKean MJ, Illand M, Brown R. A role for methylation of the hMLH1 promoter in loss of hMLH1 expression and drug resistance in ovarian cancer. Oncogene 18(14), 2335-2341 (1999).
107. Plumb JA, Strathdee G, Sludden J, Kaye SB, Brown R. Reversal of drug resistance in human tumor xenografts by 2′-deoxy-5-azacytidine-induced demethylation of the hMLH1 gene promoter. Cancer Res. 60(21), 6039-6044 (2000).
108. Strathdee G, Brown R. Epigenetic cancer therapies: DNA methyltransferase inhibitors. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 11(6), 747-754 (2002).
109. Rudek MA, Zhao M, He P et al. Pharmacokinetics of 5-azacitidine administered with phenylbutyrate in patients with refractory solid tumors or hematologic malignancies. J. Clin. Oncol. 23(17), 3906-3911 (2005).
110. Kelly WK, O'connor OA, Krug LM et al. Phase I study of an oral historic deacetylase inhibitor, suberoylanilide hydroxamic Acid, in patients with advanced cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 23(17), 3923-3931 (2005).
111. Belinsky SA, Klinge DM, Stidley CA et al. Inhibition of DNA methylation and histone deacetylation prevents murine lung cancer. Cancer Res. 63(21), 7089-7093 (2003).
112. Tsou JA, Hagen JA, Carpenter CL, Laird-Offringa IA. DNA methylation analysis: a powerful new tool for lung cancer diagnosis. Oncogene 21, 5450-5461 (2002).
113. Guo M, House MG, Hooker G et al. Promoter methylation of resected bronchial margins: a field defect of changes? Clin. Cancer Res. 10(15), 5131-5136 (2004).