The role of COX-2 in acute pain and the use of selective COX-2 inhibitors for acute pain relief

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 11, Issue 14, 2005, Pages 1737-1755

  Lee, Y ^a   Rodriguez, C ^b   Dionne, R A ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DENTAL AND CRANIOFACIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute pain; Cyclooxygenase 1; Cyclooxygenase 2; Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs; Oral surgery model; Prostaglandis; Selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ARACHIDONIC ACID; CELECOXIB; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1 INHIBITOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; DEXAMETHASONE; DICLOFENAC; ETORICOXIB; FLURBIPROFEN; IBUPROFEN; KETOPROFEN; KETOROLAC; NAPROXEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OXYCODONE; PARACETAMOL; PARECOXIB; PLACEBO; PROSTAGLANDIN E; PROSTAGLANDIN E2; PROSTAGLANDIN F; PROSTAGLANDIN H2; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE; ROFECOXIB; THROMBOXANE A2; THROMBOXANE B2; VALDECOXIB;

ADENOMATOUS POLYP; ANALGESIA; ANGINA PECTORIS; ARACHIDONIC ACID METABOLISM; ARTHRITIS; BLEEDING; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFT; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ULCER; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG LABELING; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SELECTIVITY; DRUG TARGETING; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG UTILIZATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EDEMA; ENZYME INDUCTION; ENZYME INHIBITION; ENZYME MECHANISM; FRACTURE NONUNION; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEART ARREST; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTHESIS; INFLAMMATION; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; INTRACARDIAC THROMBOSIS; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LUNG EMBOLISM; META ANALYSIS; MOLAR TOOTH; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; ORAL SURGERY; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PERITONITIS; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHESIS; RAT; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; REVIEW; SEPSIS; STOMACH DISEASE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION INHIBITION; TOOTH DISEASE; TOOTH EXTRACTION; TOOTH PAIN; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VISUAL ANALOG SCALE;

ACUTE DISEASE; ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; ARACHIDONIC ACID; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITORS; CYCLOOXYGENASE INHIBITORS; HUMANS; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; ORAL SURGICAL PROCEDURES; PAIN; PROSTAGLANDIN-ENDOPEROXIDE SYNTHASES;

EID: 18744411267     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612053764896     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Kremer J. From prostaglandin replacement to specific COX-2 inhibition: a critical appraisal. J Rheumatol Suppl 2000; 60: 9-12.
2. Hernandez-Diaz S, Rodriguez LA. Association between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding/perforation: an overview of epidemiologic studies published in the 1990s. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 2093-9.
3. Vane JR. The fight against rheumatism: from willow bark to COX-1 sparing drugs. J Physiol Pharmacol 2000; 51: 573-86.
4. Goldblatt MW. A depressor substance in seminal fluid. J Soc Chem Ind (London) 1933; 52: 1056-1057.
5. Von Euler US. A depressor substance in the vesicular gland. J Physiol 1935; 84: 21P.
6. Claria J. Cyclooxygenase-2 biology. Curr Pharm Des 2003; 9: 2177-90.
7. 2 from Arachidonic Acid Prostaglandins and Related Factors 32. Biochim Biophys Acta 1964; 90: 207-10.
8. Smith WL, DeWitt DL, Garavito RM. Cyclooxygenases: structural, cellular, and molecular biology. Annu Rev Biochem 2000; 69: 145-82.
9. Svensson CI, Yaksh TL. The spinal phospholipase-cyclooxygenase-prostanoid cascade in nociceptive processing. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2002; 42: 553-83.
10. Malmberg AB, Yaksh TL. Hyperalgesia mediated by spinal glutamate or substance P receptor blocked by spinal cyclooxygenase inhibition. Science 1992; 257: 1276-9.
11. Yamamoto T, Nozaki-Taguchi N. Analysis of the effects of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 in spinal nociceptive transmission using indomethacin, a non-selective COX inhibitor, and NS-398, a COX-2 selective inhibitor. Brain Res 1996; 739: 104-10.
12. Blatteis CM, Sehic E. Fever: How May Circulating Pyrogens Signal the Brain? News Physiol Sci 1997; 12: 1-9.
13. Nakano J, Prancan AV, Moore SE. Metabolism of prostaglandin E 1 in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum of the dog and rat. Brain Res 1972; 39: 545-8.
14. Bito LZ, Davson H, Salvador EV. Inhibition of in vitro concentrative prostaglandin accumulation by prostaglandins, prostaglandin analogues and by some inhibitors of organic anion transport. J Physiol 1976; 256: 257-71.
15. Jakobsson PJ, Thoren S, Morgenstern R, Samuelsson B. Identification of human prostaglandin E synthase: a microsomal, glutathione-dependent, inducible enzyme, constituting a potential novel drug target. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 7220-5.
16. 2 synthase that acts in concert with cyclooxygenase-2. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 32783-92.
17. Dieter P, Scheibe R, Jakobsson PJ, Watanabe K, Kolada A, Kamionka S. Functional coupling of cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 to discrete prostanoid synthases in liver macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 276: 488-92.
18. 2 biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 32775-82.
19. Tanikawa N, Ohmiya Y, Ohkubo H, Hashimoto K, Kangawa K, Kojima M, et al. Identification and characterization of a novel type of membrane-associated prostaglandin E synthase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 291: 884-9.
20. 2 production by membrane-bound prostaglandin E synthase-2 via both cyclooxygenases-1 and -2. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 37937-47.
21. Kujubu DA, Fletcher BS, Varnum BC, Lim RW, Herschman HR. TIS10, a phorbol ester tumor promoter-inducible mRNA from Swiss 3T3 cells, encodes a novel prostaglandin synthase/cyclooxygenase homologue. J Biol Chem 1991; 266: 12866-72.
22. Xie WL, Chipman JG, Robertson DL, Erikson RL, Simmons DL. Expression of a mitogen-responsive gene encoding prostaglandin synthase is regulated by mRNA splicing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 2692-6.
23. Fletcher BS, Kujubu DA, Perrin DM, Herschman HR. Structure of the mitogen-inducible TIS10 gene and demonstration that the TIS10-encoded protein is a functional prostaglandin G/H synthase. J Biol Chem 1992; 267: 4338-44.
24. O'Banion MK, Winn VD, Young DA. cDNA cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclooxygenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 4888-92.
25. Diaz A, Chepenik KP, Korn JH, Reginato AM, Jimenez SA. Differential regulation of cyclooxygenases 1 and 2 by interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and transforming growth factor-beta 1 in human lung fibroblasts. Exp Cell Res 1998; 241: 222-9.
26. Wilborn J, DeWitt DL, Peters-Golden M. Expression and role of cyclooxygenase isoforms in alveolar and peritoneal macrophages. Am J Physiol 1995; 268: L294-301.
27. Breder CD, Dewitt D, Kraig RP. Characterization of inducible cyclooxygenase in rat brain. J Comp Neurol 1995; 355: 296-315.
28. Cheng HF, Wang JL, Zhang MZ, Miyazaki Y, Ichikawa I, McKanna JA, et al. Angiotensin II attenuates renal cortical cyclooxygenase-2 expression. J Clin Invest 1999; 103: 953-61.
29. Leon CG, Marchetti J, Vio CP. Renal cyclooxygenase-2: evidence for recruitment of thick ascending limb of henle cells in microdissected nephron segments. Hypertension 2001; 38: 630-4.
30. Lim H, Gupta RA, Ma WG, Paria BC, Moller DE, Morrow JD, et al. Cyclo-oxygenase-2-derived prostacyclin mediates embryo implantation in the mouse via PPARdelta. Genes Dev 1999; 13: 1561-74.
31. Wang LH, Hajibeigi A, Xu XM, Loose-Mitchell D, Wu KK. Characterization of the promoter of human prostaglandin H synthase-1 gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993; 190: 406-11.
32. Tazawa R, Xu XM, Wu KK, Wang LH. Characterization of the genomic structure, chromosomal location and promoter of human prostaglandin H synthase-2 gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994; 203: 190-9.
33. Kosaka T, Miyata A, Ihara H, Hara S, Sugimoto T, Takeda O, et al. Characterization of the human gene (PTGS2) encoding prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2. Eur J Biochem 1994; 221: 889-97.
34. Vane JR, Bakhle YS, Botting RM. Cyclooxygenases 1 and 2. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1998; 38: 97-120.
35. Lukiw WJ, Bazan NG. Cyclooxygenase 2 RNA message abundance, stability, and hypervariability in sporadic Alzheimer neocortex. J Neurosci Res 1997; 50: 937-45.
36. Morita I, Schindler M, Regier MK, Otto JC, Hori T, DeWitt DL, et al. Different intracellular locations for prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase-1 and -2. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 10902-8.
37. Chandrasekbaran NV, Dai H, Roos KL, Evanson NK, Tomsik J, Elton TS, et al. COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 13926-31.
38. Simmons DL, Botting RM, Robertson PM, Madsen ML, Vane JR. Induction of an acetaminophen-sensitive cyclooxygenase with reduced sensitivity to nonsteroid antiinflammatory drugs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 3275-80.
39. Shitashige M, Morita I, Murota S. Different substrate utilization between prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase-1 and -2 in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998; 1389: 57-66.
40. Chen W, Pawelek TR, Kulmacz RJ. Hydroperoxide dependence and cooperative cyclooxygenase kinetics in prostaglandin H synthase-1 and -2. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 20301-6.
41. Anderson GD, Hauser SD, McGarity KL, Bremer ME, Isakson PC, Gregory SA. Selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 reverses inflammation and expression of COX-2 and interleukin 6 in rat adjuvant arthritis. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 2672-9.
42. Kang RY, Freire-Moar J, Sigal E, Chu CQ. Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in human and an animal model of rheumatoid arthritis. Br J Rheumatol 1996; 35: 711-8.
43. Amin AR, Attur M, Patel RN, Thakker GD, Marshall PJ, Rediske J, et al. Superinduction of cyclooxygenase-2 activity in human osteoarthritis-affected cartilage. Influence of nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 1997; 99: 1231-7.
44. Chopra B, Giblett S, Little JG, Donaldson LF, Tate S, Evans RI, et al. Cyclooxygenase-1 is a marker for a subpopulation of putative nociceptive neurons in rat dorsal root ganglia. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12: 911-20.
45. Ichitani Y, Shi T, Haeggstrom JZ, Samuelsson B, Hokfelt T. Increased levels of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA in the rat spinal cord after peripheral inflammation: an in situ hybridization study. Neuroreport 1997; 8: 2949-52.
46. 2 receptor EP3 in the rat lumbar spinal cord. J Neuroimmunol 1998; 89: 26-34.
47. Beiche F, Scheuerer S, Brune K, Geisslinger G, Goppelt-Struebe M. Up-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA in the rat spinal cord following peripheral inflammation. FEBS Lett 1996; 390: 165-9.
48. Hay CH, de Belleroche JS. Dexamethasone prevents the induction of COX-2 mRNA and prostaglandins in the lumbar spinal cord following intraplantar FCA in parallel with inhibition of oedema. Neuropharmacology 1998; 37: 739-44.
49. Willingale HL, Gardiner NJ, McLymont N, Giblett S, Grubb BD. Prostanoids synthesized by cyclo-oxygenase isoforms in rat spinal cord and their contribution to the development of neuronal hyperexcitability. Br J Pharmacol 1997; 122: 1593-604.
50. 2 in a model of acute arthritis is accompanied by an up-regulation of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in the spinal cord. Neuroscience 1999; 93: 775-81.
51. Samad TA, Moore KA, Sapirstein A, Billet S, Allchorne A, Poole S, et al. Interleukin-1 beta-mediated induction of COX-2 in the CNS contributes to inflammatory pain hypersensitivity. Nature 2001; 410: 471-5.
52. Forrest JB, Camu F, Greer IA, Kehlet H, Abdalla M, Bonnet F, et al. Ketorolac, diclofenac, and ketoprofen are equally safe for pain relief after major surgery. Br J Anaesth 2002; 88: 227-33.
53. Edwards JE, Oldman AD, Smith LA, Carroll D, Wiffen PJ, McQuay HJ, et al. Oral aspirin in postoperative pain: a quantitative systematic review. Pain 1999; 81: 289-97.
54. Edwards JE, Oldman A, Smith L, Collins SL, Carroll D, Wiffen PJ, et al. Single dose oral aspirin for acute pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD002067.
55. Tramer MR, Williams JE, Carroll D, Wiffen PJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Comparing analgesic efficacy of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs given by different routes in acute and chronic pain: a qualitative systematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998; 42: 71-9.
56. Gilroy DW, Colville-Nash PR, Willis D, Chivers J, Paul-Clark MJ, Willoughby DA. Inducible cyclooxygenase may have anti-inflammatory properties. Nat Med 1999; 5: 698-701.
57. Simon AM, Manigrasso MB, O'Connor JP. Cyclo-oxygenase 2 function is essential for bone fracture healing. J Bone Miner Res 2002; 17: 963-76.
58. Catella-Lawson F, McAdam B, Morrison BW, Kapoor S, Kujubu D, Antes L, et al. Effects of specific inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 on sodium balance, hemodynamics, and vasoactive eicosanoids. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 289: 735-41.
59. Hennan JK, Huang J, Barrett TD, Driscoll EM, Willens DE, Park AM, et al. Effects of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on vascular responses and thrombosis in canine coronary arteries. Circulation 2001; 104: 820-5.
60. Whelton A. Renal aspects of treatment with conventional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs versus cyclooxygenase-2-specific inhibitors. Am J Med 2001; 110 Suppl 3A: 33S-42S.
61. Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, Simon LS, Pincus T, Whelton A, et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: A randomized controlled trial. Celecoxib Long-term Arthritis Safety Study. Jama 2000; 284: 1247-55.
62. Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, Shapiro D, Burgos-Vargas R, Davis B, et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. VIGOR Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1520-8, 2 p following 1528.
63. Fitzgerald GA. Coxibs and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1709-11
64. Walter MF, Jacob RF, Day CA, Dahlborg R, Weng Y, Mason RP. Sulfone COX-2 inhibitors increase susceptibility of human LDL and plasma to oxidative modification: comparison to sulfonamide COX-2 inhibitors and NSAIDs. Atherosclerosis 2004; 177: 235-43.
65. Smith WL, Dewitt DL. Prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthases-1 and -2. Adv Immunol 1996; 62: 167-215.
66. Langenbach R, Loftin C, Lee C, Tiano H. Cyclooxygenase knockout mice: models for elucidating isoform-specific functions. Biochem Pharmacol 1999; 58: 1237-46.
67. DeWitt DL. Cox-2-selective inhibitors: the new super aspirins. Mol Pharmacol 1999; 55: 625-31.
68. 2 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated rat peritoneal macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 230: 110-4.
69. 2 in activated mast cells. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 3231-7.
70. 2 generation in rat 3Y1 fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 1733-40.
71. 2s. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 12263-8.
72. 2. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 11660-6.
73. Fujishima H, Sanchez Mejia RO, Bingham CO, 3rd, Lam BK, Sapirstein A, Bonventre JV, et al. Cytosolic phospholipase A2 is essential for both the immediate and the delayed phases of eicosanoid generation in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 4803-7.
74. Luong C, Miller A, Barnett J, Chow J, Ramesha C, Browner MF. Flexibility of the NSAID binding site in the structure of human cyclooxygenase-2. Nat Struct Biol 1996; 3: 927-33.
75. Kurumbail RG, Stevens AM, Gierse JK, McDonald JJ, Stegeman RA, Pak JY, et al. Structural basis for selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 by anti-inflammatory agents. Nature 1996; 384: 644-8.
76. Swinney DC, Mak AY, Barnett J, Ramesha CS. Differential allosteric regulation of prostaglandin H synthase 1 and 2 by arachidonic acid. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 12393-8.
77. 2s and cyclooxygenases in immediate and delayed prostanoid biosynthetic pathways. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 3103-15.
78. Khan AA, Brahim JS, Rowan JS, Dionne RA. In vivo selectivity of a selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor in the oral surgery model. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 72: 44-9.
79. Huang M, Stolina M, Sharma S, Mao JT, Zhu L, Miller PW, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer cyclooxygenase-2-dependent regulation of cytokine balance in lymphocytes and macrophages: upregulation of interleukin 10 and down-regulation of interleukin 12 production. Cancer Res 1998; 58: 1208-16.
80. McAdam BF, Catella-Lawson F, Mardini IA, Kapoor S, Lawson JA, FitzGerald GA. Systemic biosynthesis of prostacyclin by cyclooxygenase (COX)-2: the human pharmacology of a selective inhibitor of COX-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 272-7.
81. 2 pathway in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44: 1767-74.
82. Trebino CE, Stock JL, Gibbons CP, Naiman BM, Wachtmann TS, Umland JP, et al. Impaired inflammatory and pain responses in mice lacking an inducible prostaglandin E synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100: 9044-9.
83. Dionne RA, Berthold CW. Therapeutic uses of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in dentistry. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2001; 12: 315-30.
84. Doyle G, Jayawardena S, Ashraf E, Cooper SA. Efficacy and tolerability of nonprescription ibuprofen versus celecoxib for dental pain. J Clin Pharmacol 2002; 42: 912-9.
85. Ehrich EW, Dallob A, De Lepeleire I, Van Hecken A, Riendeau D, Yuan W, et al. Characterization of rofecoxib as a cyclooxygenase-2 isoform inhibitor and demonstration of analgesia in the dental pain model. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 65: 336-47.
86. Morrison BW, Christensen S, Yuan W, Brown J, Amlani S, Seidenberg B. Analgesic efficacy of the cyclooxygnase-2-specific inhibitor rofecoxib in post-dental surgery pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Ther 1999; 21: 943-53.
87. Morrison BW, Daniels SE, Kotey P, Cantu N, Seidenberg B. Rofecoxib, a specific cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, in primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 94: 504-8.
88. Malmstrom K, Daniels S, Kotey P, Seidenberg BC, Desjardins PJ. Comparison of rofecoxib and celecoxib, two cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, in postoperative dental pain: a randomized, placebo- and active-comparator-controlled clinical trial. Clin Ther 1999; 21: 1653-63.
89. Malmstrom K, Fricke JR, Kotey P, Kress B, Morrison B. A comparison of rofecoxib versus celecoxib in treating pain after dental surgery: a single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-comparator-controlled, parallel-group, single-dose study using the dental impaction pain model. Clin Ther 2002; 24: 1549-60.
90. Morrison BW, Fricke J, Brown J, Yuan W, Kotey P, Mehlisch D. The optimal analgesic dose of rofecoxib: Overview of six randomized controlled trials. JADA 2000; 131: 1729-37.
91. Chang DJ, Desjardins PJ, Chen E, Polis AB, McAvoy M, Mockoviak SH, et al. Comparison of the analgesic efficacy of rofecoxib and enteric-coated diclofenac sodium in the treatment of postoperative dental pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clin Ther 2002; 24: 490-503.
92. Chang DJ, Fricke JR, Bird SR, Bohidar NR, Dobbins TW, Geba GP. Rofecoxib versus codeine/acetaminophen in postoperative dental pain: a double-blind, randomized, placebo- and active comparator-controlled clinical trial. Clin Ther 2001; 23: 1446-55.
93. Gopikrishna V, Parameswaran A. Effectiveness of prophylactic use of rofecoxib in comparison with ibuprofen on postendodontic pain. J Endod 2003; 29: 62-4.
94. Daniels SE, Desjardins PJ, Talwalker S, Recker DP, Verburg KM. The analgesic efficacy of valdecoxib vs. oxycodone/acetaminophen after oral surgery. JADA 2002; 133: 611-21; quiz 625.
95. Desjardins PJ, Shu VS, Recker DP, Verburg KM, Woolf CJ. A single preoperative oral dose of valdecoxib, a new cyclooxygenase-2 specific inhibitor, relieves post-oral surgery or bunionectomy pain. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 565-73.
96. Fricke J, Varkalis J, Zwillich S, Adler R, Forester E, Recker DP, et al. Valdecoxib is more efficacious than rofecoxib in relieving pain associated with oral surgery. Am J Ther 2002; 9: 89-97.
97. Mehlisch DR, Desjardins PJ, Daniels S, Hubbard RC. Single doses of parecoxib sodium intravenously are as effective as ketorolac in reducing pain after oral surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2003; 61: 1030-7.
98. Dionne RA, Gordon SM, Tahara M, Rowan J, Troullos E. Analgesic efficacy and pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen administered into a surgical site. J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 39: 131-8.
99. Dionne RA, Haynes D, Brahim JS, Rowan JS, Guivarch P. Analgesic affects of microencapsulated flurbiprofen in the oral surgery model of acute pain. J Clin Pharmacol 2004; 44(12): 1418-24.
100. Hargreaves KM, Costello A. Glucocorticoids suppress levels of immunoreactive bradykinin in inflamed tissue as evaluated by microdialysis probes. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990; 48: 168-78.
101. Swift JQ, Garry MG, Roszkowski MT, Hargreaves KM. Effect of flurbiprofen on tissue levels of immunoreactive bradykinin and acute postoperative pain. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1993; 51: 112-6; discussion 116-7.
102. 4, and (S)-flurbiprofen following extraction of impacted third molars. Pain 1997; 73: 339-45.
103. Dionne RA, Cooper SA. Evaluation of preoperative ibuprofen for postoperative pain after removal of third molars. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1978; 45: 851-6.
104. Dionne RA, Campbell RA, Cooper SA, Hall DL, Buckingham B. Suppression of postoperative pain by preoperative administration of ibuprofen in comparison to placebo, acetaminophen, and acetaminophen plus codeine. J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 23: 37-43.
105. Dionne RA, Wirdzek PR, Fox PC, Dubner R. Suppression of postoperative pain by the combination of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, flurbiprofen, and a long-acting local anesthetic, etidocaine. JADA 1984; 108: 598-601.
106. Troullos ES, Hargreaves KM, Butler DP, Dionne RA. Comparison of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ibuprofen and flurbiprofen, with methylprednisolone and placebo for acute pain, swelling, and trismus. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1990; 48: 945-52.
107. Gordon SM, Brahim JS, Rowan J, Kent A, Dionne RA. Peripheral prostanoid levels and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug analgesia: replicate clinical trials in a tissue injury model. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 72: 175-83.
108. Dionne RA, Gordon SM, Rowan J, Kent A, Brahim JS. Dexamethasone suppresses peripheral prostanoid levels without analgesia in a clinical model of acute inflammation. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2003; 61: 997-1003.
109. Laska EM, Sunshine A, Wanderling JA, Meisner MJ. Quantitative differences in aspirin analgesia in three models of clinical pain. J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 22: 531-42.
110. Barden J, Edwards JE, McQuay HJ, Andrew Moore R. Pain and analgesic response after third molar extraction and other postsurgical pain. Pain 2004; 107: 86-90.
111. 2 is mediated by the inhibition of constitutive spinal cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) but not COX-1. J Neurosci 2001; 21: 5847-53.
112. Zhu X, Conklin D, Eisenach JC. Cyclooxygenase-1 in the spinal cord plays an important role in postoperative pain. Pain 2003; 104: 15-23.
113. FitzGerald GA. COX-2 and beyond: Approaches to prostaglandin inhibition in human disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003; 2: 879-90.
114. Claria J. Cyclooxygenase-2 biology. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 9(27): 2177-90.
115. Ferrandez A, Prescott S, Burt RW. COX-2 and colorectal cancer. Curr Pharm Design 2003; 9(27): 2229-51.
116. Tacconelli S, Capone ML, Patrignani P. Clinical pharmacology of novel selective COX-2 inhibitors. Curr Pharm Design 2004; 10(6): 589-601.