Fabrication trends for free-space microoptics

Journal of Lightwave Technology

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 633-646

  Suleski, Thomas J ^a,b   Te Kolste, Robert D ^a  

^a Digital Optics Corporation   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHARLOTTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Diffractive optics; Fabrication; Integration; Lithography; Manufacturing; Microoptics; Replication

Indexed keywords

ABERRATIONS; DIFFRACTIVE OPTICS; FABRICATION; LITHOGRAPHY; MICROLENSES; OPTICAL BEAM SPLITTERS; OPTICAL COMMUNICATION; OPTICAL MATERIALS; WAVEFRONTS;

MICROOPTICS FABRICATION; REFRACTIVE MICROOPTICS; REPLICATION;

MICROOPTICS;

EID: 15844363855     PISSN: 07338724     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JLT.2004.842302     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. C. L. Coleman, Y. C. Chen, X. Wang, H. Welch, and B. TeKolste, "Diffractive optics in a parallel fiber transmitter module," in Diffractive Optics and Micro-Optics. Washington, DC: OSA 2002, OSA Technical Digest Series, pp. 249-252.
2. E. G. Johnson, J. Stack, C. Koehler, and T. J. Suleski, "Diffractive vortex lens for mode-matching graded index fiber," in Diffractive Optics and Micro-Optics. Washington, DC: OSA, 2000, OSA Technical Digest Series, pp. 205-207.
3. E. G. Johnson, J. Stack, and C. Koehler, "Light coupling by a vortex lens into graded index fiber," J. Lightwave. Tech., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 753-758, May 2001.
4. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 6th ed. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980.
5. C. Palmer, Diffraction Grating Handbook. Rochester, NY: Milton Roy, 1994.
6. B. Guenther, "Manufacturing: The key to binary optics," in Proc. Conf. Binary Optics: An Opportunity for Technical Exchange, vol. 3227, H. J. Cole and W. C. Pittman, Eds., Huntsville, AL, 1993, pp. 1-17.
7. J. R. Meyers-Arendt, Introduction to Classical and Modern Optics, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995.
8. B. R. Brown and A. W. Lohmann, "Complex spatial filtering with binary masks," Appl. Opt., vol. 5, pp. 967-969, 1966.
9. A. W. Lohmann and D. P. Paris, "Binary Fraunhofer holograms, generated by computer," Appl. Opt., vol. 6, p. 1739, 1967.
10. L. Lesem, P. Hirsch, and J. Jordan, "The kinoform: A new wavefront reconstruction device," IBM J. Res. Dev., vol. 13, p. 150, 1969.
11. J. A. Jordan, P. M. Hirsch, L. B. Lesem, and D. L. Van Rooy, "Kinoform lenses," Appl. Opt., vol. 9, pp. 1883-1887, 1970.
12. W. H. Lee, "Computer generated holograms: Techniques and applications," in Progress in Optics Vol. XVI, E. Wolf, Ed. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: North-Holland, 1978, pp. 121-232.
13. L. d'Auria, J. P. Huignard, A. M. Roy, and E. Spitz, "Photolithographic fabrication of thin film lenses," Opt. Comm., vol. 5, pp. 232-235, 1972.
14. J. J. Clair and C. I. Abitbol, "Recent advances in phase profile generation," in Progress in Optics Vol. XVI, E. Wolf, Ed. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: North-Holland, 1978, pp. 73-117.
15. O. K. Ersoy, "Construction of point images with the scanning electron microscope: A simple algorithm," Optik, vol. 46, pp. 61-66, 1976.
16. T. Fujita, H. Nishihara, and J. Koyama, "Fabrication of micro-lenses using electron beam lithography," Opt. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 613-615, 1981.
17. M. T. Gale and K. Knop, "The fabrication of fine lens arrays by laser beam writing," in Proc. SPIE Industrial Applications of Laser Technology, vol. 398, W. F. Fagan, Ed., 1983, pp. 347-353.
18. W. B. Veldkamp and G. J. Swanson, "Developments in fabrication of binary optics," in Proc. Int. Conf. Computer Generated Holography vol. 437, Proc. SPIE, S. H. Lee, Ed., 1983, pp. 54-59
19. G. J. Swanson, "Binary optics technology: The theory and design of multi-level diffractive optical elements," MIT, Cambridge, MA, MIT Lincoln Lab. Rep. 854, 1989.
20. M. B. Stern, "Binary optics fabrication," in Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed. London, U.K.: Taylor Francis, 1997, pp. 53-85.
21. P. P. Clark and C. Londoño. "Production of kinoforms by single-point diamond machining," Opt. News, pp. 39-40, 1989.
22. Z. D. Popovic, R. A. Sprague, and G. A. Neville Connell, "Technique for monolithic fabrication of microlens arrays," Appl. Opt., vol. 27, pp. 1281-1284, 1988.
23. D. Daly, R. F. Stevens, M. C. Hutley, and N. Davies, "The manufacture of microlenses by melting photoresist," Meas. Sci. Technol., vol. 1, pp. 759-766, 1990.
24. Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed., Taylor Francis, London, U.K., 1997.
25. H. O. Sankur and M. E. Motamedi, "Microoptics development in the past decade," in Proc. SPIE Micromachining Technology for Micro-Optics vol. 4179, S. H. Lee and E. G. Johnson, Eds., 2000, pp. 30-55.
26. T. J. Suleski and R. D. Te Kolste, "A roadmap for micro-optics fabrication," in Proc. SPIE Lithographic and Micromachining Techniques for Optical Component Fabrication, vol. 4440, E. B. Kley and H. P. Herzig, Eds., 2001. pp. 1-15.
27. J. Mait, "From ink bottles to E-beams: A historical perspective of diffractive optics," in Proc. SPIE Optical Processing and Computing: A Tribute to Adolf Lohmann, vol. 4392, D. Casasent, H. J. Caulfield, W. J. Dallas, and H. Szu, Eds., 2001.
28. X. Gao, J. Bates, D. Pustai, and D. W. Prather, "Integrated micro 4f-optical imaging system for the characterization of mesoscopic DOEs," in Proc. SPIE Gradient Index. Miniature. and Diffractive Optical Systems II, vol. 4437, T. J. Suleski. Ed., 2001, pp. 172-180.
29. D. C. O'Shea, T. J. Suleski, A. D. Kathman, and D. W. Prather, Diffractive Optics: Design, Fabrication. and Test. Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 2003.
30. T. J. Suleski, "Diffractive optics fabrication," in Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering, R. G. Driggers, Ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 374-387.
31. R. C. Enger and S. K. Case, "Optical elements with ultrahigh spatial-frequency surface corrugations," Appl. Opt., vol. 22, pp. 3220-3228, 1983.
32. R. Magnusson, D. Shin, and Z. S. Liu, "Guided-mode resonance Brewster filter," Opt. Lett., vol. 23, pp. 612-614, 1998.
33. M. Okai, S. Tsuji, N. Chinone, and T. Harada, "Novel method to fabricate corrugation for a λ/4-shifted distributed feedback laser using a grating photomask," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 55, pp. 415-417, 1989.
34. J. N. Mait and D. W. Prather, Selected Papers on Subwavelength Diffractive Optics, ser. SPIE Milestone. Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering, 2001, vol. MS 166.
35. W. Stork, N. Streibl, H. Haidner, and P. Kipfer, "Artificial distributed index media fabricated by zero-order gratings," Opt. Lett., vol. 16, pp. 1921-1923, 1991.
36. F. T. Chen and H. G. Craighead, "Diffractive lens fabricated with mostly zeroth-order gratings," Opt. Lett., vol. 21, pp. 177-179, 1996.
37. J. M. Miller, N. de Beaucoudrey, P. Chavel, E. Cambril, and H. Launois, "Synthesis of a subwavelength-pulse-width spatially modulated array illuminator for 0.633 μm," Opt. Letra., vol. 21, pp. 1399-1401, 1996.
38. J. N. Mait, A. Scherer, O. Dial, D. W. Prather, and X. Gao, "Diffractive lens fabricated with binary features less than 60 nm," Opt. Lett., vol. 25, pp. 381-383, 2000.
39. E. Yablonovitch, "Photonic band-gap structures," J. Opt. Soc. Amer. B, vol. 10, p. 283, 1993.
40. J. D. Joannopoulos. R. D. Meade, and J. N. Winn, Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995.
41. S. Y. Lin. J. G. Fleming, D. L. Hetherington, B. K. Smith, R. Biswas, K. M. Ho, M. M. Sigalas, W. Zubrzycki, S. R. Kurtz, and J. Bur, "A three-dimensional photonic crystal operating at infrared wavelengths," Nature, vol. 394, pp. 251-253, 1998.
42. M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Tuberfield, "Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography," Nature, vol. 404, pp. 53-56, 2000.
43. E. Chou, S. Y. Lin, J. R. Wendt, S. J. Johnson, and J. D. Joannopoulos, "Quantitative analysis of bending efficiency in photonic-crystal waveguide bends at λ = 1.55 μm wavelengths," Opt. Lett., vol. 26, pp. 286-288, 2001.
44. S. G. Johnson and J. D. Joannopoulos, Photonic Crystals: The Road from Theory to Practice. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2002.
45. G. J. Schneider, J. Murakowski, S. Venkataraman, and D. W. Prather, "Combination lithography for photonic crystal circuits," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B., vol. 22, pp. 146-151, 2004.
46. S. Astilean, P. Lalanne, P. Chavel, E. Cambril, and H. Launois, "High-efficiency subwavelength diffractive element patterned in a high-refractive-index material for 633 nm," Opt. Lett., vol. 23, pp. 552-554, 1998.
47. S. A. Jenekhe and X. L. Chen, "Self-assembly of ordered microporous materials from rod-coil block copolymers," Science, vol. 283, pp. 372-375, 1999.
48. G. Subramanian, V. N. Manoharan, J. D. Thorne, and D. I. Pine, "Ordered macroporous materials by colloidal self-assembly: A possible route to photonic bandgap materials," Adv. Mater., vol. 11, pp. 1261-1265, 1999.
49. M. D. Levenson, N. S. Viswanathan, and R. A. Simpson, "Improving resolution in photolithography with a phase-shifting mask," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-29, pp. 1828-1836, 1982.
50. M. D. Himel, R. E. Hutchins, J. C. Colvin, M. K. Poutous, A. D. Kathman, and A. S. Fedor, "Design and fabrication of customized illumination patterns for low kl lithography: A diffractive approach," in Proc. SPIE Optical Microlithography XIV, vol. 4346, C. J. Progler and A. Yen, Eds., 2001, pp. 1436-1442.
51. M. S. Hibbs, "System overview of optical steppers and scanners," in Microlithography Science and Technology, J. R. Sheats and B. W. Smith, Eds. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998, pp. 1-107.
52. W. H. Arnold, "Immersion lithography: Introduction to the special issue," J. Microlith. Microfab., Microsyst., vol. 3, p. 8, 2003.
53. S. D. Berger and J. M. Gibson, "New approach to projection-electron lithography with demonstrated 0.1 μ linewidth," Appl. Phys. Lett. vol. 57, p. 153, 1990.
54. T. H. P. Chang, D. P. Kern, and L. P. Murray, "Arrayed miniature electron beam columns for high throughput sub-100 nm lithography," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, vol. 10, p. 2743, 1992.
55. D. Spears and H. I. Smith, "100 years of x-rays: Impact on micro and nanofabrication," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, vol. 13, p. 2323, 1995.
56. J. L. Wilbur, A. Kumar, E. Kim, and G. M. Whitesides, "Microfabrication by microcontact printing of self-assembled monolayers," Advan. Mat. vol. 6, pp. 600-604, 1994.
57. Y. Xia and G. M. Whitesides, "Soft lithography," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 37, pp. 550-575, 1998.
58. A. Lopez and H. G. Craighead, "Subwavelength surface-relief gratings fabricated by microcontact printing of self-asssembled monolayers," Appl. Opt., vol. 40, pp. 2068-2075, 2001.
59. T. J. Suleski, B. Baggett, W. F. Delaney, and A. D. Kathman, "Emerging fabrication methods for diffractive optical elements," in Proc. SPIE Diffractive and Holographic Technologies, Systems, and Spatial Light Modulators VI, vol. 3633, I. Cindrich, S. H. Lee, and R. L. Sutherland, Eds., 1999, pp. 26-34.
60. P. I. Jensen and A. Sudbo, "Bragg gratings for 1.55-μm wavelength fabricated on semiconductor material by grating-period doubling using a phase mask," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 783-785, Jul. 1995.
61. T. J. Suleski, B. Baggett, W. F. Delaney, C. Koehler, and E. G. Johnson, "Fabrication of high spatial frequency gratings through computer generated near-field holography," Opt. Lett., vol. 24, pp. 602-604, 1999.
62. S. Y. Chou, P. R. Krauss, W. Zhang, L. Guo, and L. Zhuang, "Sub-10 nm imprint lithography and applications" J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B., vol. 15, pp. 2897-2904, 1997.
63. M. D. Austin, H. Ge, W. Wu, M. Li, Z. Yu, D. Wasserman, S. A. Lyon, and S. Y. Chou, "Fabrication of 5 nm linewidth and 14 nm pitch features by nanoimprint lithography," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 84, pp. 5299-5301, 2004.
64. S. Y. Chou, P. R. Krauss, and P. J. Renstrom, "Nanoimprint lithography," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B., vol. 14, pp. 4129-4133, 1996.
65. F. Nikolajeff, S. Hard, and B. Curtis, "Diffractive microlenses replicated in fused silica for excimer laser-beam homogenizing," Appl. Opt., vol. 36, pp. 8481-8489, 1997.
66. X. Zhao, Y. Xia, and G. M. Whitesides, "Fabrication of three-dimensional micro-structures: Microtransfer molding," Adv. Mater., vol. 8, pp. 837-840, 1996.
67. M. T. Gale, "Replication," in Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed. London, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 1997, pp. 153-177.
68. P. Nussbaum, I. Philipoussis, A. Husser, and H. P. Herzig, "Simple technique for replication of micro-optical elements," Opt. Eng., vol. 37, pp. 1804-1808, 1998.
69. T. J. Suleski, B. Baggett, H. Miller, B. Delaney, and J. Pagan, "Waferscale replication of glass micro-optics for optical communications," in Diffractive Optics and Micro-Optics. Washington, DC: OSA, 2000, OSA Technical Digest Series, pp. 231-233.
70. E. Goldstein, L.-Y. Lin, and J. Walker, "Lightwave micromachines for optical networks," Opt. Photon. News, pp. 60-64, 2001.
71. K. Bergman, N. Bonadeo, I. Brener, and K. Chiang, "Ultra-high capacity MEMS based optical cross-connects," in Proc. SPIE Design, Test, Integration, and Packaging of MEMS/MOEMS 2001, vol. 4408, B. Courtois, J. M. Karam, S. P. Levitan, K. W. Markus, A. A. O. Tay, and J. A. Walker, Eds., 2001, pp. 2-5.
72. D. T. Neilson, R. Frahm, P. Kolodner, C. A. Bolle, R. Ryf, J. Kim, A. R. Papazian, C. J. Nuzman, A. Gasparyan, N. R. Basavanhally, V. A. Aksyuk, and J. V. Gates, "256 × 256 port optical cross-connect subsystem," J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 1499-1509, Jun. 2004.
73. G. Kim and R. T. Chen, "Crosstalk analysis for optical backplane using two-dimensional beam array from VCSEL and microlens array," in Proc. SPIE Optoelectronic Interconnects VII; Photonic Packaging and Integration II, vol. 3952, M. R. Feldman, R. L. Li, W. B. Matkin, and S. Tan, Eds., 2000, pp. 286-295.
74. M. R. Feldman, T. J. Suleski, and W. F. Delaney, "Fabricating optical elements using a photoresist formed from contact printing of a gray level mask," U.S. Patent #6071 652.
75. M. C. Hutley, "Refractive lenslet arrays," in Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed. London, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 1997, pp. 127-152.
76. 2 by ion milling," in Proc. SPIE Micromachining Technology for Micro-Optics, vol. 4179, S. H. Lee and E. G. Johnson, Eds., 2000, pp. 108-116.
77. M. K. Poutous, M. D. Himel, W. F. Delaney, J. D. Stack, A. D. Kathman, A. S. Fedor, R. E. Hutchins, and J. L. Leonard, "Design and fabrication of customized illumination patterns for low k1 lithography: A diffractive approach: II. Calcium fluoride controlled-angle diffusers," in Proc. SPIE Optical Microlithography XV, vol. 4691, A. Yen, Ed., 2002, pp. 1556-1562.
78. G. R. Nash, T. Ashley, D. T. Dutton, N. T. Gordon, and T. J. PHillips, "Micromachined optical concentrators for IR LEDs," in Proc. SPIE Micromachining Technology for Micro-Optics, vol. 4179, S. H. Lee and E. G. Johnson, Eds., 2000, pp. 117-122.
79. T. Erdogan, O. King, G. W. Wicks, D. G. Hall, E. H. Anderson, and M. J. Rooks, "Circularly symmetric operation of a concentric-circle-grating surface-emitting, AlGaAs/GaAs quantum well semiconductor laser," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 60, pp. 1921-1923, 1992.
80. R. A. Morgan, J. A. Cox, R. Wilke, and C. Ford, "Applications of guided mode resonance filters to VCSELs," in Diffractive Optics and MicroOptics. Washington, DC: OSA, 1998, OSA Technical Digest Series, pp. 18-20.
81. J. Vukusic, J. Bengtsson, M. Ghisoni, A. Larsson, C.-F. Carlstrom, and G. Landgren, "Fabrication and characterization of diffractive optical elements in InP for monolithic integration with surface emitting components," Appl. Opt., vol. 39, pp. 398-401, 2000.
82. J. Bengtsson, N. Eriksson, and A. Larsson, "Small-feature size fan-out kinoform etched in GaAs," Appl. Opt., vol. 35, pp. 801-806, 1995.
83. L. Vaissie, W. Mohammed, and E. G. Johnson, "Monolithic integration of dual-layer optics into broad-area semiconductor laser diodes," Opt. Lett., vol. 28, pp. 651-653, 2003.
84. J. B. D. Soole, A. Scherer, H. Leblanc, N. Andreadakis, R. Bhat, and M. Koza, "Monolithic InP-based grating spectrometer for wavelength-division multiplexed systems at 1.5 μm," Electron. Lett. vol. 27, pp. 132-134, 1991.
85. M. B. Fleming and M. C. Hutley, "Blazed diffractive optics," Appl. Opt., vol. 36, pp. 4635-4643, 1997.
86. C. Londoño, "Design and fabrication of surface relief diffractive optical elements, or kinoforms, with examples for optical athermalization," Ph.D. dissertation, Tufts Univ., Somerville, MA, 1992.
87. M. A. Davies, C. J. Evans, R. R. Vohra, B. C. Bergner, and S. R. Patterson, "Application of precision diamond machining to the manufacture of microphotonics components," in Proc. SPIE Lithographic and Micromachining Techniques for Optical Component Fabrication II, vol. 5183, E. B. Kley and H. P. Herzig, Eds., 2003, pp. 94-108.
88. R. A. Shelby, D. R. Smith, and S. Schultz, "Experimental verification of a negative index of refraction," Science, vol. 292, pp. 77-79, 2001.
89. J. B. Pendry, "Negative refraction makes a perfect lens," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 85, pp. 3966-3969, 2000.
90. W. B. Veldkamp, "Overview of micro-optics: Past, present, and future," in Proc. SPIE Miniature and Micro-Optics: Fabrication and System Applications, vol. 1544, C. Roychoudhuri and W. B. Veldkamp, Eds., 1991, pp. 287-299.
91. W. Singer and K. H. Brenner, "Stacked micro-optical systems," in Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed. London, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 1997, pp. 199-221.
92. J. Jahns, "Planar integrated free-space optics," in Micro-Optics: Elements, Systems, and Applications, H. P. Herzig, Ed. London, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 1997, pp. 179-198.
93. M. R. Feldman and Y. C. Lee, Micro-Optics Integration and Assemblies Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 1998, vol. 3289.
94. M. R. Feldman, J. G. Grote, and M. K. Hibbs-Brenner, Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits and Packaging III. Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 1999, vol, 3631.
95. T. J. Suleski, Gradient Index, Miniature, and Diffractive Optical Systems II. Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 2001, vol. 4437.
96. T. J. Suleski, Gradient Index, Miniature, and Diffractive Optical Systems III. Bellingham, WA: SPIE, 2003, vol. 5177.
97. M. Kufner, S. Kufner, P. Chavel, and M. Frank, "Monolithic integration of microlens arrays and fiber holder arrays in poly(methyl methacylate) with fiber self-centering," Opt. Lett., vol. 20, pp. 276-278, 1995.
98. M. R. Feldman, A. D. Kathman, and W. H. Welch, "Integrated micro-optical systems," U.S. Patent #6061 169.
99. M. R. Feldman, A. D. Kathman, and W. H. Welch, "Integrated optical apparatus and associated methods," U.S. Patent #6104 690.
100. A. Schilling, P. Nussbaum, I. Philipoussis, H. P. Herzig, L. Stauffer, M. Rossi, and E.-B. Kley, "Fabrication technologies for micro-optical elements with arbitrary surfaces," in Proc. SPIE Micromachining Technology for Micro-Optics, vol. 4179, S. H. Lee and E. G. Johnson, Eds., 2000, pp. 65-72.
101. M. G. Moharam and T. K. Gaylord, "Diffraction analysis of dielectric surface relief gratings," J. Opt. Soc. Amer., vol. 72, pp. 1385-1392, 1982.