Addictive potential of cannabinoids: The underlying neurobiology

Chemistry and Physics of Lipids

Volumn 121, Issue 1-2, 2002, Pages 267-290

  Gardner, Eliot L ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Brain stimulation reward; Cannabinoids; Cannabis; Conditioned place preference; Dopamine; Limbic; Marijuana; Medial forebrain bundle; Meso accumbens; Mesolimbic; Microdialysis; Nucleus accumbens; Reinforcement; Reinstatement; Relapse; Reward

Indexed keywords

2,3 DIHYDRO 5 METHYL 3 (MORPHOLINOMETHYL) 6 (1 NAPHTHOYL)PYRROLO[1,2,3 DE][1,4]BENZOXAZINE; 4 (1,1 DIMETHYLHEPTYL) 1',2',3',4',5',6' HEXAHYDRO 2,3' DIHYDROXY 6' (3 HYDROXYPROPYL)BIPHENYL; CANNABINOID; DOPAMINE; RIMONABANT; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL;

ADDICTION; ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN FUNCTION; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONTROLLED STUDY; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG DETOXIFICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SELF ADMINISTRATION; EXTRACELLULAR SPACE; FOREBRAIN; HUMAN; LIMBIC SYSTEM; MEDIAL FOREBRAIN BUNDLE; MESENCEPHALON; MOTIVATION; NERVE CELL; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PLACE PREFERENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLICATION; VENTRAL TEGMENTUM;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; BRAIN; CANNABINOIDS; DOPAMINE; HUMANS; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; REWARD; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA;

ANIMALIA; CANNABIS; CANNABIS SATIVA;

EID: 0037207090     PISSN: 00093084     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0009-3084(02)00162-7     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (214)

1. Aceto M.D., Scates S.M., Lowe J.A., Martin B.R. Dependence on delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: studies on precipitated and abrupt withdrawal. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 278:1996;1290-1295.
2. Aceto M.D., Scates S.M., Lowe J.A., Martin B.R. Spontaneous and precipitated withdrawal from a synthetic cannabinoid, WIN 55,212-2. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 416:2001;75-81.
3. Amit Z., Smith B.R., Sutherland E.A. Oral self-administration of alcohol: a valid approach to the study of drug self-administration and human alcoholism. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;161-171 Springer, New York.
4. Anthony J.C., Warner L.A., Kessler R.C. Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances and inhalants: basic findings from National Comorbidity Study. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2:1994;244-268.
5. Banerjee S.P., Snyder S.H., Mechoulam R. Cannabinoids: influence on neurotransmitter uptake in rat brain synaptosomes. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 194:1975;74-81.
6. Bardo M.T. Neuropharmacological mechanisms of drug reward: beyond dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 12:1998;37-67.
7. Berridge K.C., Robinson T.E. What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience. Brain Res. Rev. 28:1998;309-369.
8. Bindra D. Neuropsychological interpretation of the effects of drive and incentive-motivation on general activity and instrumental behavior. Psychol. Rev. 75:1968;1-22.
9. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the synthesis of dopamine and norepinephrine in mouse brain synaptosomes. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 221:1982;97-103.
10. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the mouse. Psychopharmacology. 57:1978;243-248.
11. Bloom A.S., Dewey W.L., Harris L.S., Brosius K.K. 9-Nor-9beta-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol, a cannabinoid with potent antinociceptive activity: comparisons with morphine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 200:1977;263-270.
12. Blum K., Cull J.G., Braverman E.R., Comings D.E. Reward deficiency syndrome. Am. Scientist. 84:1996;132-145.
13. Blum K., Sheridan P.J., Wood R.C., Braverman E.R., Chen T.J., Cull J.G., Comings D.E. The D2 dopamine receptor gene as a determinant of reward deficiency syndrome. J. R. Soc. Med. 89:1996;396-400.
14. Bozarth M.A., Wise R.A. Anatomically distinct opiate receptor fields mediate reward and physical dependence. Science. 244:1984;516-517.
15. Brady J.V., Lucas S.E. Testing Drugs for Physical Dependence Potential and Abuse Liability (NIDA Res. Monogr. 52). 1984;US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
16. Brady J.V., Griffiths R.R., Hienz R.D., Ator N.A., Lukas S.E., Lamb R.J. Assessing drugs for abuse liability and dependence potential in laboratory primates. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;45-85 Springer, New York.
17. Braida D., Pozzi M., Cavallini R., Sala M. Conditioned place preference induced by the cannabinoid agonist CP 55,940: interaction with the opioid system. Neuroscience. 104:2001;923-926.
18. Braida D., Pozzi M., Parolaro D., Sala M. Intracerebral self-administration of the cannabinoid receptor agonist CP 55,940 in the rat: interaction with the opioid system. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 413:2001;227-234.
19. Cadogan A.K., Alexander S.P., Boyd E.A., Kendall D.A. Influence of cannabinoids on electrically evoked dopamine release and cyclic AMP generation in the rat striatum. J. Neurochem. 69:1997;1131-1137.
20. Cador M., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Involvement of the amygdala in stimulus-reward associations: interaction with the ventral striatum. Neuroscience. 30:1989;77-86.
21. Cannon D.S., Carrell L.E. Rat strain differences in ethanol self-administration and taste aversion. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 28:1987;57-63.
22. Carlezon W.A. Jr, Wise R.A. Rewarding actions of phencyclidine and related drugs in nucleus accumbens shell and frontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;3112-3122.
23. Carney J.M., Uwaydah I.M., Balster R.L. Evaluation of a suspension system for intravenous self-administration of water insoluble substances in the rhesus monkey. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 7:1977;357-364.
24. Castañeda E., Moss D.E., Oddie S.D., Whishaw I.Q. THC does not affect striatal dopamine release: microdialysis in freely moving rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 40:1991;587-591.
25. 1) receptors in the establishment of place conditioning in rats. Psychopharmacology. 135:1998;324-332.
26. Cheer J.F., Kendall D.A., Marsden C.A. Cannabinoid receptors and reward in the rat: a conditioned place preference study. Psychopharmacology. 151:2000;25-30.
27. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on presynaptic dopamine efflux in nucleus accumbens of the Lewis rat. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 15:1989;1096.
28. 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol enhances presynaptic dopamine efflux in medial prefrontal cortex. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 190:1990;259-262.
29. 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol produces naloxone-blockable enhancement of presynaptic basal dopamine efflux in nucleus accumbens of conscious, freely-moving rats as measured by intracerebral microdialysis. Psychopharmacology. 102:1990;156-162.
30. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the nucleus accumbens of rat: an in vivo microdialysis study. Neurosci. Lett. 129:1991;136-140.
31. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances ventral tegmental somatodendritic dopamine levels but not forebrain dopamine levels: evidence for local neural action by marijuana's psychoactive ingredient. Brain Res. 621:1993;65-70.
32. 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol's enhancement of nucleus accumbens dopamine resembles that of reuptake blockers rather than releasers - evidence from in vivo microdialysis experiments with 3-methoxytyramine. NIDA Res. Monogr. 141:1994;312.
33. Childers S.R., Fleming L., Konkoy C., Marckel D., Pacheco M., Sexton T., Ward S. Opioid and cannabinoid receptor inhibition of adenylyl cyclase in brain. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 654:1992;33-51.
34. Clarke P.B.S., Pert A. Autoradiographic evidence for nicotine receptors on nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons. Brain Res. 348:1985;355-358.
35. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 285:1998;1150-1156.
36. Corcoran M.E., Amit Z. Reluctance of rats to drink hashish suspensions: free-choice and forced consumption, and the effects of hypothalamic stimulation. Psychopharmacologia. 35:1974;129-147.
37. Crowley T.J., Macdonald M.J., Whitmore E.A., Mikulich S.K. Cannabis dependence, withdrawal, and reinforcing effects among adolescents with conduct symptoms and substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 50:1998;27-37.
38. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacologist. 13:1971;246.
39. De Vries T.J., Shaham Y., Homberg J.R., Crombag H., Schuurman K., Dieben J., Vanderschuren L.J.M.J., Schoffelmeer A.N.M. A cannabinoid mechanism in relapse to cocaine seeking. Nat. Med. 7:2001;1151-1154.
40. de Wit H., Stewart J. Reinstatement of cocaine-reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology. 75:1981;134-143.
41. de Wit H., Stewart J. Drug reinstatement of heroin-reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology. 79:1983;29-31.
42. Diana M., Melis M., Gessa G.L. Increase in meso-prefrontal dopaminergic activity after stimulation of CB1 receptors by cannabinoids. Eur. J. Neurosci. 10:1998;2825-2830.
43. Diana M., Melis M., Muntoni A.L., Gessa G.L. Mesolimbic dopaminergic decline after cannabinoid withdrawal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:1998;10269-10273.
44. Di Chiara G. The role of dopamine in drug abuse viewed from the perspective of its role in motivation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 38:1995;95-137.
45. Di Chiara G., Imperato A. Preferential stimulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens by opiates, alcohol, and barbiturates: studies with transcerebral dialysis in freely moving rats. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 473:1986;367-381.
46. Erb S., Shaham Y., Stewart J. Stress reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged extinction and drug-free periods. Psychopharmacology. 128:1996;408-412.
47. Everitt B.J., Cador M., Robbins T.W. Interactions between the amygdala and ventral striatum in stimulus-reward associations: studies using a second-order schedule of sexual reinforcement. Neuroscience. 30:1989;63-75.
48. Everitt B.J., Parkinson J.A., Olmstead M.C., Arroyo M., Robledo P., Robbins T.W. Associative processes in addiction and reward: the role of amygdala-ventral striatal subsystems. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 877:1999;412-438.
49. Felder C.C., Glass M. Cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous agonists. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 38:1998;179-200.
50. Fischer J.F., Cho A.K. Chemical release of dopamine from striatal homogenates: evidence for an exchange diffusion model. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 208:1979;203-209.
51. Frank R.A., Martz S., Pommering T. The effect of chronic cocaine on self-stimulation train-duration thresholds. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 29:1988;755-758.
52. Fratta W., Martellotta M.C., Cossu G., Fattore L. WIN 55,212-2 induces intravenous self-administration in drug-naive mice. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 23:1997;1869.
53. 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol excites rat VTA dopamine neurons through activation of cannabinoid CB1 but not opioid receptors. Neurosci. Lett. 226:1997;159-162.
54. French E.D., Dillon K., Wu X. Cannabinoids excite dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmentum and substantia nigra. Neuroreport. 8:1997;649-652.
55. Fudala P.J., Iwamoto E.T. Conditioned aversion after delay place conditioning with amphetamine. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 35:1990;89-92.
56. Fudala P.J., Teoh K.W., Iwamoto E.T. Pharmacologic characterization of nicotine-induced conditioned place preference. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 22:1985;237-241.
57. Gaffan D. Amygdala and the memory of reward. Aggleton J.P. The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion. 1992;471-483 Wiley, New York.
58. Gallistel C.R., Shizgal P., Yeomans J.S. A portrait of the substrate for self-stimulation. Psychol. Rev. 88:1981;228-273.
59. Gardner E.L. Cannabinoid interaction with brain reward systems - the neurobiological basis of cannabinoid abuse. Murphy L.L., Bartke A. Marijuana/Cannabinoids: Neurobiology and Neurophysiology. 1992;275-335 CRC Press, New York.
60. Gardner E.L. Brain reward mechanisms. Lowinson J.H., Ruiz P., Millman R.B., Langrod J.G. Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Third Ed: 1997;51-85 Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
61. Gardner E.L. The neurobiology and genetics of addiction: implications of the 'reward deficiency syndrome' for therapeutic strategies in chemical dependency. Elster J. Addiction: Entries and Exits. 1999;57-119 Russell Sage, New York.
62. Gardner E.L. What we have learned about addiction from animal models of drug self-administration. Am. J. Addict. 9:2000;285-313.
63. Gardner E.L., Lowinson J.H. Marijuana's interaction with brain reward systems: update 1991. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 40:1991;571-580.
64. Gardner E.L., Lowinson J.H. Drug craving and positive/negative hedonic brain substrates activated by addicting drugs. Semin. Neurosci. 5:1993;359-368.
65. Gardner E.L., Vorel S.R. Cannabinoid transmission and reward-related events. Neurobiol. Dis. 5:1998;502-533.
66. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology. 96:1988;142-144.
67. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in laboratory rats. Psychopharmacology. 96:(suppl):1988;365.
68. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in laboratory rats is mirrored by strain-specific facilitation of presynaptic dopamine efflux in nucleus accumbens. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 15:1989;638.
69. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol is mediated by an endogenous opioid mechanism. Adv. Biosci. 75:1989;671-674.
70. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol is mediated by an endogenous opioid mechanism. van Ree J.M., Mulder A.H., Wiegant V.M., van Wimersma Greidanus T.B. New Leads in Opioid Research. 1990;243-245 Elsevier, Amsterdam.
71. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol as a dopamine reuptake blocker: brain microdialysis studies. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 16:1990;1100.
72. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced facilitation of electrical brain stimulation reward (BSR). Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 21:1995;177.
73. George F.R. Genetic and environmental factors in ethanol self-administration. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 27:1987;379-384.
74. George F.R., Goldberg S.R. Genetic approaches to the analysis of addiction processes. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 10:1989;78-83.
75. George F.R., Meisch R.A. Oral narcotic intake as a reinforcer: genotype×environment interaction. Behav. Genet. 14:1984;603.
76. Gessa G.L., Diana M. Different mechanisms for dopaminergic excitation induced by opiates and cannabinoids in the rat midbrain. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 24:2000;993-1006.
77. 1 receptors. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 341:1998;39-44.
78. Gifford A.N., Gardner E.L., Ashby C.R. Jr. The effect of intravenous administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the activity of A10 dopamine neurons recorded in vivo in anesthetized rats. Neuropsychobiology. 36:1997;96-99.
79. Goett J.M., Kay E.J. Lithium chloride and delta-9-THC lead to conditioned aversions in the pigeon. Psychopharmacology. 72:1981;215-216.
80. Goldberg S.R., Munzar P., Justinova Z., Tanda G.L. Effects of naltrexone on intravenous self-administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) by squirrel monkeys under fixed-ratio and second-order schedules. Abstracts of the 2001 Symposium on the Cannabinoids. 2001;102 International Cannabinoid Research Society, Burlington, VT.
81. Goldstein A. Addiction: From Biology to Drug Policy. Second Ed. 2001;Oxford University Press, New York.
82. Goldstein A., Kalant H. Drug policy: striking the right balance. Science. 249:1990;1513-1521.
83. Gonon F.G. Nonlinear relationship between impulse flow and dopamine released by rat midbrain dopaminergic neurons as studied by in vivo electrochemistry. Neuroscience. 24:1988;19-28.
84. Grenhoff J., Aston-Jones G., Svensson T.H. Nicotinic effects on the firing pattern of midbrain dopamine neurons. Acta Physiol. Scand. 128:1986;351-358.
85. Griffiths R.R., Bigelow C.E., Liebson I. Experimental drug self-administration: generality across species and type of drug. NIDA Res. Monogr. 20:1978;24-43.
86. Grimm J.W., See R.E. Dissociation of primary and secondary reward-relevant limbic nuclei in an animal model of relapse. Neuropsychopharmacology. 22:2000;473-479.
87. Guitart X., Beitner-Johnson D., Nestler E.J. Fischer and Lewis rat strains differ in basal levels of neurofilament proteins and in their regulation by chronic morphine. Synapse. 12:1992;242-253.
88. Gysling K., Wang R.Y. Morphine-induced activation of A10 dopamine neurons in the rat. Brain Res. 277:1983;119-127.
89. Hall W., Solowij N., Lemon J. The Health and Psychological Consequences of Cannabis Use (National Drug Strategy Monograph Series No. 25). 1994;Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
90. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in monkeys. Psychopharmacologia. 37:1974;23-29.
91. Hayes, R.J., Vorel, S.R., Spector, J., Liu, X., Gardner, E.L., 2002. Electrical and chemical stimulation of the basolateral complex of the amygdala reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior in the rat. Psychopharmacology, in press.
92. Heal D.J., Frankland A.T.J., Buckett W.R. A new and highly sensitive method for measuring 3-methoxytyramine using HPLC with electrochemical detection: studies with drugs which alter dopamine metabolism in the brain. Neuropharmacology. 29:1990;1141-1150.
93. 3H-norepinephrine in slices of rat neostriatum and cerebral cortex. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 194:1975;47-56.
94. 3H) dopamine in rat brain tissue slices. Biochem. Pharmacol. 24:1975;847-852.
95. Herkenham M., Lynn A.B., de Costa B.R., Richfield E.K. Neuronal localization of cannabinoid receptors in the basal ganglia of the rat. Brain Res. 547:1991;267-274.
96. 1-tetrahydrocannabinol and psychoactive drugs: effects on uptake of biogenic amines and on behavior. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 59:1979;267-276.
97. Hershkowitz M., Goldman R., Raz A. Effect of cannabinoids on neurotransmitter uptake, ATPase activity and morphology of mouse brain synaptosomes. Biochem. Pharmacol. 26:1977;1327-1331.
98. Hiroi N., White N.M. The lateral nucleus of the amygdala mediates expression of the amphetamine conditioned place preference. J. Neurosci. 11:1991;2107-2116.
99. Hutcheson D.M., Tzavara E.T., Smadja C., Valjent E., Roques B.P., Hanoune J., Maldonado R. Behavioural and biochemical evidence for signs of abstinence in mice chronically treated with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Br. J. Pharmacol. 125:1998;1567-1577.
100. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced increases in dopamine utilization in rat prefrontal cortex. Synapse. 28:1998;21-26.
101. Johnson S.W., North R.A. Opioids excite dopamine neurons by hyperpolarization of local interneurons. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;483-488.
102. Johnson K.M., Dewey W.L., Harris L.S. Some structural requirements for inhibition of high-affinity synaptosomal serotonin uptake by cannabinoids. Mol. Pharmacol. 12:1976;345-352.
103. Johnson P.I., Goodman J.B., Condon R., Stellar J.R. Reward shifts and motor responses following microinjections of opiate-specific agonists into either the core or shell of the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology. 120:1995;195-202.
104. Jorenby D.E., Steinpreis R.E., Sherman J.E., Baker T.B. Aversion instead of preference learning indicated by nicotine place conditioning in rats. Psychopharmacology. 101:1990;533-538.
105. Katner S.N., Magalong J.G., Weiss F. Reinstatement of alcohol-seeking behavior by drug-associated discriminative stimuli after prolonged extinction in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology. 20:1999;471-479.
106. Kaymakçalan S. Physiology and psychological dependence on THC in rhesus monkeys. Paton W.D.M., Crown J. Cannabis and its Derivatives. 1972;142-149 Oxford University Press, London.
107. Kaymakçalan S. Tolerance to and dependence on cannabis. Bull. Narc. 25:1973;39-47.
108. Khodzhagel'diev T. Formirovanie vlecheniia k nikotinu u myshei linii C57Bl/6 i CBA [Development of nicotine preference in C57Bl/6 and CBA mice]. Biull. Eksp. Biol. Med. 101:1986;48-50.
109. Kleber, H.D., 1988. Introduction - Cocaine abuse: Historical, epidemiological, and psychological perspectives. J. Clin. Psychiatry 49 (2) (Suppl.) 3-6.
110. Koob G.F. Drug addiction: the yin and yang of hedonic homeostasis. Neuron. 16:1996;893-896.
111. Koob G.F. The role of the striatopallidal and extended amygdala systems in drug addiction. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 877:1999;445-460.
112. Koob G.F., Le Moal M. Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science. 278:1997;52-58.
113. Koob G.F., Markou A., Weiss F., Schulteis G. Opponent process and drug dependence: neurobiological mechanisms. Semin. Neurosci. 5:1993;351-358.
114. Kornetsky C., Bain G. Brain-stimulation reward: a model for the study of the rewarding effects of abused drugs. NIDA Res. Monogr. 124:1992;73-93.
115. Kornetsky C., Duvauchelle C. Dopamine, a common substrate for the rewarding effects of brain stimulation reward, cocaine, and morphine. NIDA Res. Monogr. 145:1994;19-39.
116. Kosten T.A., Miserendino M.J., Chi S., Nestler E.J. Fischer and Lewis rat strains show differential cocaine effects in conditioned place preference and behavioral sensitization but not in locomotor activity or conditioned taste aversion. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 269:1994;137-144.
117. Kosten T.A., Miserendino M.J., Haile C.N., DeCaprio J.L., Jatlow P.I., Nestler E.J. Acquisition and maintenance of intravenous cocaine self-administration in Lewis and Fischer inbred rat strains. Brain Res. 778:1997;418-429.
118. Kozel N.J., Adams E.H. Epidemiology of drug abuse: an overview. Science. 234:1986;970-974.
119. Laszlo J., Lucas V.S., Hanson D.C., Cronin C.M., Sallan S.E. Levonantradol for chemotherapy-induced emesis: phase I-II oral administration. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:1981;51S-56S.
120. 1 receptor knockout mice. Science. 283:1999;401-404.
121. Leite J.R., Carlini E.A. Failure to obtain 'cannabis directed behavior' and abstinence syndrome in rats chronically treated with cannabis sativa extracts. Psychopharmacologia. 36:1974;133-145.
122. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: comparison with cocaine, morphine, and food reward. Life Sci. 56:1995;2073-2080.
123. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced facilitation of brain stimulation reward as measured by a rate-frequency curve-shift electrical brain stimulation paradigm in three different rat strains. Life Sci. 58:1996;PL365-PL372.
124. Leviel V. The reverse transport of DA, what physiological significance? Neurochem. Int. 38:2001;83-106.
125. MacCoun R., Reuter P. Interpreting Dutch cannabis policy: reasoning by analogy in the legalization debate. Science. 278:1997;47-52.
126. 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, but not the endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand anandamide, produces conditioned place aversion. Life Sci. 62:1998;2431-2439.
127. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a microdialysis study in conscious rats. Br. J. Pharmacol. 128:1999;21-26.
128. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and CP 55,940 to maintain intravenous self-administration under a fixed-interval schedule in rhesus monkeys. Behav. Pharmacol. 5:1994;219-225.
129. Martellotta M.C., Cossu G., Fattore L., Gessa G.L., Fratta W. Self-administration of the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 in drug-naive mice. Neuroscience. 85:1998;327-330.
130. McBride W.J., Murphy J.M., Ikemoto S. Localization of brain reinforcement mechanisms: intracranial self-administration and intracranial place-conditioning studies. Behav. Brain Res. 101:1999;129-152.
131. McFarland K., Ettenberg A. Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior produced by heroin-predictive environmental stimuli. Psychopharmacology. 131:1997;86-92.
132. McGregor I.S., Issakidis C.N., Prior G. Aversive effects of the synthetic cannabinoid CP 55,940 in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 53:1996;657-664.
133. Meil W.M., See R.E. Conditioned cued recovery of responding following prolonged withdrawal from self-administered cocaine in rats: an animal model of relapse. Behav. Pharmacol. 7:1996;754-763.
134. Meisch R.A., Carroll M.E. Oral drug self-administration: drugs as reinforcers. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;143-160 Springer, New York.
135. Melis M., Muntoni A.L., Diana M., Gessa G.L. The cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 potently stimulates dopaminergic neuronal activity in the mesolimbic system. Behav. Pharmacol. 7:(Suppl. 1):1996;68.
136. Mereu G., Yoon K.-W.P., Boi V., Gessa G.L., Naes L., Westfall T.C. Preferential stimulation of ventral tegmental area dopaminergic neurons by nicotine. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 141:1987;395-400.
137. Merlo Pich E., Lorang M., Yeganeh M., Rodríguez de Fonseca F., Raber J., Koob G.F., Weiss F. Increase in extracellular corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity levels in the amygdala of awake rats during restraint stress and ethanol withdrawal as measured by microdialysis. J. Neurosci. 15:1995;5439-5447.
138. Misenrendino M.J.D., Kosten T.A., Guitart X., Chi S., Nestler E.J. Individual differences in vulnerability to drug addiction: behavioral and biochemical correlates. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 18:1992;1078.
139. Mucha R.F., Van der Kooy D., O'Shaughnessy M., Bucenieks P. Drug reinforcement studied by use of place conditioning in rat. Brain Res. 243:1982;91-105.
140. Napier T.C., Mitrovic I. Opioid modulation of ventral pallidal inputs. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 877:1999;176-201.
141. Nash J.F., Brodkin J. Microdialysis studies on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine induced dopamine release: effect of dopamine uptake inhibitors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 259:1991;820-825.
142. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol affects behavioral and neurochemical indices of mesolimbic dopaminergic activity. Behav. Brain Res. 57:1993;37-46.
143. 1 cannabinoid receptor antagonist-induced opiate withdrawal in morphine-dependent rats. Neuroreport. 9:1998;3397-3402.
144. Nestler E.J. Molecular mechanisms of drug addiction in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. Semin. Neurosci. 5:1993;369-376.
145. Ng Cheong Ton J.M., Gardner E.L. Effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on dopamine release in the brain: intracranial dialysis experiments. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 12:1986;135.
146. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on potassium-evoked release of dopamine in the rat caudate nucleus: an in vivo electrochemical and in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res. 451:1988;59-68.
147. Noyes J.R., Brunk S.F., Avery D.H., Canter A. The analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18:1975;84-89.
148. Overton P.G., Clark D. Burst firing in midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Brain Res. Rev. 25:1997;312-334.
149. Parker L.A., Gillies T. THC-induced place and taste aversions in Lewis and Sprague-Dawley rats. Behav. Neurosci. 109:1995;71-78.
150. Parsons L.H., Smith A.D., Justice J.B. Jr. Basal extracellular dopamine is decreased in the rat nucleus accumbens during abstinence from chronic cocaine. Synapse. 9:1991;60-65.
151. Peoples L.L., Uzwiak A.J., Gee F., Fabbricatore A.T., Muccino K.J., Mohta B.D., West M.O. Phasic accumbal firing may contribute to the regulation of drug taking during intravenous cocaine self-administration. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 877:1999;781-787.
152. Pickens R., Thompson T., Muchow D.C. Cannabis and phencyclidine self-administered by animals. Goldfarb L., Hoffmeister F. Psychic Dependence [Bayer-Symposium IV]. 1973;78-86 Springer, Berlin.
153. Poddar M.K., Dewey W.L. Effects of cannabinoids on catecholamine uptake and release in hypothalamus and striatal synaptosomes. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 214:1980;63-67.
154. Pontieri F.E., Tanda G., Di Chiara G. Intravenous cocaine, morphine, and amphetamine preferentially increase extracellular dopamine in the 'shell' as compared with the 'core' of the rat nucleus accumbens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 92:1995;12304-12308.
155. Pothos E., Rada P., Mark G.P., Hoebel B.G. Dopamine microdialysis in the nucleus accumbens during acute and chronic morphine, naloxone-precipitated withdrawal and clonidine treatment. Brain Res. 566:1991;348-350.
156. Raft D., Gregg J., Ghia J., Harris L. Effects of intravenous tetrahydrocannabinol on experimental and surgical pain. Psychological correlate of the analgesic response. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 21:1977;26-33.
157. Redgrave P., Prescott T.J., Gurney K. Is the short-latency dopamine response too short to signal reward error? Trends Neurosci. 22:1999;146-151.
158. Richardson N.R., Roberts D.C.S. Progressive ratio schedules in drug self-administration studies in rats: a method to evaluate reinforcing efficacy. J. Neurosci. Methods. 66:1996;1-11.
159. Robinson T.E., Berridge K.C. The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res. Rev. 18:1993;247-291.
160. Rodríguez de Fonseca F., Carrera M.R.A., Navarro M., Koob G.F., Weiss F. Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor in the limbic system during cannabinoid withdrawal. Science. 276:1997;2050-2054.
161. Rossetti Z.L., Hmaidan Y., Gessa G.L. Marked inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine release: a common feature of ethanol, morphine, cocaine and amphetamine abstinence in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 221:1992;227-234.
162. Rubino T., Tizzoni L., Viganò D., Massi P., Parolaro D. Modulation of rat brain cannabinoid receptors after chronic morphine treatment. Neuroreport. 8:1997;3219-3223.
163. Sañudo-Peña M.C., Tsou K., Delay E.R., Hohman A.G., Force M., Walker J.M. Endogenous cannabinoids as an aversive or counter-rewarding system in the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 223:1997;125-128.
164. Schaefer G.J., Michael R.P. Changes in response rates and reinforcement thresholds for intracranial self-stimulation during morphine withdrawal. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 25:1986;1263-1269.
165. Schechter M.D., Calcagnetti D.J. Trends in place preference conditioning with a cross-indexed bibliography; 1957-1991. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 17:1993;21-41.
166. Schulteis G., Markou A., Gold L.H., Stinus L., Koob G.F. Relative sensitivity of multiple indices of opiate withdrawal: a quantitative dose-response analysis. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 271:1994;1391-1398.
167. Schultz W., Dayan P., Montague P.R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science. 275:1997;1593-1599.
168. Self D.W., Nestler E.J. Molecular mechanisms of drug reinforcement and addiction. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 18:1995;463-495.
169. Shaham Y., Stewart J. Stress reinstates heroin-seeking in drug-free animals: an effect mimicking heroin, not withdrawal. Psychopharmacology. 119:1995;334-341.
170. Shaham Y., Rajabi H., Stewart J. Relapse to heroin-seeking in rats under opioid maintenance: the effects of stress, heroin-priming, and withdrawal. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;1957-1963.
171. Shalev U., Grimm J.W., Shaham Y. Neurobiology of relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking: a review. Pharmacol. Rev. 54:2002;1-42.
172. Shizgal P. Neural basis of utility estimation. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7:1997;198-208.
173. Shore P.A., McMillen B.A., Miller H.H., Sanghera M.K., Kiserand R.S., German D.C. The dopamine neuronal storage system and non-amphetamine psychotogenic stimulants: a model for psychosis. Usdin E., Kopin I.J., Barchas J. Catecholamines: Basic and Clinical Frontiers. 1979;722-735 Pergamon Press, New York.
174. Simon D., Burns E. The Corner: A Year in the Life of an Inner-City Neighborhood. 1997;Broadway Books (Random House), New York.
175. Stewart J. Reinstatement of heroin and cocaine self-administration behavior in the rat by intracerebral application of morphine in the ventral tegmental area. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 20:1984;917-923.
176. Stewart J., de Wit H. Reinstatement of drug-taking behavior as a method of assessing incentive motivational properties of drugs. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;211-227 Springer, New York.
177. Stewart J., Vezina P. A comparison of the effects of intra-accumbens injections of amphetamine and morphine on reinstatement of heroin intravenous self-administration behavior. Brain Res. 457:1988;287-294.
178. Suzuki T., George F.R., Meisch R.A. Differential establishment and maintenance of oral ethanol reinforced behavior in Lewis and Fischer 344 inbred rat strains. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 245:1989;164-170.
179. Szabo B., Muller T., Koch H. Effects of cannabinoids on dopamine release in the corpus striatum and the nucleus accumbens in vitro. J. Neurochem. 73:1999;1084-1089.
180. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol by rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 11:1979;737-740.
181. Takahashi R.N., Singer G. Effects of body weight levels on cannabis self-administration. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 13:1980;877-881.
182. Takahashi R.N., Singer G. Cross self-administration of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and D-amphetamine in rats. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 14:1981;395-400.
183. 1 opioid receptor mechanism. Science. 276:1997;2048-2050.
184. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 376:1999;23-26.
185. Tanda G., Munzar P., Goldberg S.R. Self-administration behavior is maintained by the psychoactive ingredient in marijuana in squirrel monkeys. Nat. Neurosci. 3:2000;1073-1074.
186. Taylor D.A., Sitaram B.R., Elliot-Baker S. Effect of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on release of dopamine in the corpus striatum of the rat. Chesher G., Consroe P., Musty R. Marijuana: An International Research Report. 1988;405-408 Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
187. Thanos P.K., Volkow N.D., Freimuth P., Umegaki H., Ikari H., Roth G., Ingram D.K., Hitzemann R. Overexpression of dopamine D2 receptors reduces alcohol self-administration. J. Neurochem. 78:2001;1094-1103.
188. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 260:1994;5-13.
189. Tsou K., Patrick S.L., Walker J.M. Physical withdrawal in rats tolerant to delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol precipitated by a cannabinoid receptor antagonist. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 280:1995;R13-R15.
190. Tzavara E.T., Valjent E., Firmo C., Mas M., Beslot F., Defer N., Roques B.P., Hanoune J., Maldonado R. Cannabinoid withdrawal is dependent upon PKA activation in the cerebellum. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12:2000;1038-1046.
191. Tzschentke T.M. Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference paradigm: a comprehensive review of drug effects, recent progress and new issues. Prog. Neurobiol. 56:1998;613-672.
192. Uhl G., Blum K., Noble E., Smith S. Substance abuse vulnerability and D2 receptor genes. Trends Neurosci. 16:1993;83-88.
193. 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Psychopharmacology. 147:2000;436-438.
194. van der Kooy D. Place conditioning: a simple and effective method for assessing the motivational properties of drugs. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;229-240 Springer, New York.
195. Vaysse P.J.-J., Gardner E.L., Zukin R.S. Modulation of rat brain opioid receptors by cannabinoids. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241:1987;534-539.
196. Volkow N.D., Wang G.-J., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Hitzemann R.J., Ding Y.-S., Pappas N., Shea C., Piscani K. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 20:1996;1594-1598.
197. Volkow N.D., Wang G.-J., Fowler J.S., Logan J., Gatley S.J., Hitzemann R.J., Chen A.D., Pappas N. Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature. 386:1997;830-833.
198. 2 receptor levels. Am. J. Psychiatry. 156:1999;1440-1443.
199. 2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry. 158:2001;2015-2021.
200. Vorel S.R., Liu X., Hayes R.J., Spector J.A., Gardner E.L. Relapse to cocaine-seeking after hippocampal theta burst stimulation. Science. 292:2001;1175-1178.
201. Weeks J.R., Collins R.J. Screening for drug reinforcement using intravenous self-administration in the rat. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;35-43 Springer, New York.
202. Westerink B.H., Tuntler J., Damsma G., Rollema H., de Vries J.B. The use of tetrodotoxin for the characterization of drug-enhanced dopamine release in conscious rats studied by brain dialysis. Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 336:1987;502-507.
203. White N.M., Hiroi N. Amphetamine conditioned cue preference and the neurobiology of drug-seeking. Semin. Neurosci. 5:1993;329-336.
204. Wickelgren I. Getting the brain's attention. Science. 278:1997;35-37.
205. Wise R.A. Addictive drugs and brain stimulation reward. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 19:1996;319-340.
206. Wise R.A., Bozarth M.A. Brain reward circuitry: four circuit elements 'wired' in apparent series. Brain Res. Bull. 12:1984;203-208.
207. Wise, R.A., Gardner, E.L., 2002a. Animal models of addiction. In: Charney, D.S., Nestler, E.J., Bunney, B.S. (Eds.), Neurobiology of Mental Illness, Second Ed., Oxford University Press, London, in press.
208. Wise R.A., Gardner E.L. Functional anatomy of substance-related disorders. D'haenen H., den Boer J.A., Willner P. Biological Psychiatry. 2002;509-522 Wiley, New York.
209. Wise R.A., Munn E. Withdrawal from chronic amphetamine elevates baseline intracranial self-stimulation thresholds. Psychopharmacology. 117:1995;130-136.
210. Wise R.A., Murray A., Bozarth M.A. Bromocriptine self-administration and bromocriptine-reinstatement of cocaine-trained and heroin-trained lever pressing in rats. Psychopharmacology. 100:1990;355-360.
211. Wood P.L., Altar C.A. Dopamine release in vivo from nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical neurons: utility of 3-methoxytyramine measurements. Pharmacol. Rev. 40:1988;163-187.
212. Woodward D.J., Chang J.Y., Janak P., Azarov A., Anstrom K. Mesolimbic neuronal activity across behavioral states. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 877:1999;91-112.
213. Yanagita T. Prediction of drug abuse liability from animal studies. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;189-198 Springer, New York.
214. Yokel R.A. Intravenous self-administration: response rates, the effects of pharmacological challenges, and drug preferences. Bozarth M.A. Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs. 1987;1-33 Springer, New York.