Genomic organization, transcription, splicing and gene regulation in Leishmania

Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology

Volumn 93, Issue 8, 1999, Pages 781-807

  Stiles, J K ^a   Hicock, P I ^b   Shah, P H ^a   Meade, J C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE; GENE CONTROL; GENETIC ORGANIZATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HOST; INSECT; LEISHMANIA; LEISHMANIASIS; MOLECULAR GENETICS; NONHUMAN; POLYADENYLATION; REVIEW; RNA SPLICING; SKIN DEFECT; TRANS SPLICING; VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS;

LEISHMANIA;

EID: 0033369092     PISSN: 00034983     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1999.11813485     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. Agami, R., Aly, R., Halman, S. & Shapira, M. (1994). Functional analysis of cis-acting DNA elements required for expression of the SL RNA gene in the parasitic protozoan Leishmania amazonensis. Nucleic Acids Research, 22, 1959-1965.
2. Alonso, G., Guevara, P. & Ramirez, J. L. (1992). Trypanosomatidae codon usage and GC distribution. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 87, 517-523.
3. Alvarez, F., Robello, C. & Vignali, M. (1994). Evolution of codon usage and base contents in kinetoplastid protozoans. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 11, 790-802.
4. Aly, R., Argaman, M., Halman, S. & Shapira, M. (1994). A regulatory role for the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions in the differential expression of hsp83 in Leishmania. Nucleic Acids Research, 22, 2922-2929.
5. Andersen, K. A., Britigan, B. E. & Wilson, M. E. (1996). Short report: regulation of inducible heat shock protein 70 genes in Leishmania chagasi. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 54, 471-474.
6. Arana, F. E., Pérez-Victoria, J. M., Repetto, Y., Morello, A., Castanys, S. & Gamarro, F. (1998). Involvement of thiol metabolism in resistance to glucantime in Leishmania tropica. Biochemical Pharmacology, 56, 1201-1208.
7. Argaman, M., Aly, R. & Shapira, M. (1994). Expression of heat shock protein 83 in Leishmania is regulated post-transcriptionally. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 64, 95-110.
8. Ban̄uls, A.-L., Guerrini, F., Le Pont, F., Barrera, C., Espinel, I., Guderian, R., Echeverria, R., & Tibyarenc M. (1997). Evidence for hybridization by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and random amplified DNA between Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania panamensis/guyanensis in Ecuador. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 44, 408-411.
9. Bastien, P., Blaineau, C., Taminh, M., Rioux, J. A., Roizès, G. & Pagès, M. (1990). Interclonal variations in molecular karyotype in Leishmania infantum imply a mosaic strain structure. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 40, 53-62.
10. Bastien, P., Blaineau, C. & Pagès, M. (1992). Molecular karyotype analysis in Leishmania. In Subcellular Biochemistry, Vol. 18: Intracellular Parasites, eds Avila, J. L. & Harris, J. R. pp. 131-187. New York: Plenum Press.
11. Beetham, J. K., Myung, K. S., McCoy, J. J., Wilson, M. E. & Donelson, J. E. (1997). Glycoprotein 46 mRNA abundance is post-transcriptionally regulated during development of Leishmania chagasi promastigotes to an infectious form. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 17 360-17 366.
12. Bello, A. R., Nare, B., Freedman, D., Hardy, L. & Beverley, S. M. (1994). PTR1: a reductase mediating salvage of oxidized pteridines and methotrexate resistance in the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 11 442-11 446.
13. Berberich, C. F., Machado, G., Morales, G., Carrillo, G., Jimenez-Ruiz, A. & Alonso, C. (1998). The expression of the Leishmania infantum KMP-11 protein is developmentally regulated and stage specific. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1442, 230-237.
14. Berberof, M., Vanhamme, L., Tebabi, P., Pays, A., Jefferies, D., Welburn, S. & Pays, E. (1995). The 3′-terminal region of the mRNAs for VSG and procyclin can confer stage specificity to gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei. EMBO Journal, 14, 2925-2934.
15. Beverley, S. M. (1991). Gene amplification in Leishmania. Annual Review of Microbiology, 45, 417-444.
16. Beverley, S. M., Coderre, J. A., Santi, D. V. & Schimke, R. T. (1984). Unstable DNA amplifications in methotrexate-resistant Leishmania consist of extrachromosomal circles which relocalize during stabilization. Cell, 38, 431-439.
17. Bhaumik, M., Das, S. & Adhya, S. (1991). Evidence for translational control of β-tubulin synthesis during differentiation of Leishmania donovani. Parasitology, 103, 197-205.
18. Blaineau, C., Bastien, P. & Pagès, M. (1992). Multiple forms of chromosome I, II and V in a restricted population of Leishmania infantum contrasting with monomorphism in individual strains suggest haploidy or automixy. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 50, 197-204.
19. Blattner, J. & Clayton, C. E. (1995). The 3′-untranslated regions from the Trypanosoma brucei phosphoglycerate kinase-encoding genes mediate developmental regulation. Gene, 162, 153-156.
20. Bock, J. H. & Langer, P. J. (1993). Sequence and genomic organization of the hsp70 genes of Leishmania amazonensis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 62, 187-198.
21. Brandau, S., Dresel, A. & Clos, J. (1995). High constitutive levels of heat-shock proteins in human- pathogenic parasites of the genus Leishmania. Biochemical Journal, 310, 225-232.
22. Britto, C., Ravel, C., Bastien, P., Blaineau, C., Pagès, M., Dedet, J.-P. & Wincker, P. (1998). Conserved linkage groups associated with large-scale chromosomal rearrangements between Old World and New World Leishmania genomes. Gene, 222, 107-117.
23. Burchmore, R. J. S. & Landfear, S. M. (1998). Differential regulation of multiple glucose transporter genes in Leishmania mexicana. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 29 118-29 126.
24. Burns Jr, J. M., Shreffler, W. G., Benson, D. R., Ghalib, H. W., Badaro, R. & Reed, S. G. (1993). Molecular characterization of a kinesin-related antigen of Leishmania chagasi that detects specific antibody in African and American visceral leishmaniasis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 775-779.
25. Cano, M. I. N., Dungan, J. M., Agabian, N. & Blackburn, E. H. (1999). Telomerase in kinetoplastid parasitic protozoa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96, 3616-3621.
26. Caponigro, G. & Parker, R. (1996). Mechanisms and control of mRNA turnover in Saccharomyces cerevesiae. Microbiological Reviews, 60, 233-249.
27. Charest, H. & Matlasheweski, G. (1994). Developmental gene expression in Leishmania donovani: differential cloning and analysis of an amastigote-stage specific gene. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 14, 2975-2984.
28. Charest, H., Zhang, W.-W. & Matlashewski, G. (1996). The developmental expression of Leishmania donovani A2 amastigote-specific genes is post-transcriptionally mediated and involves elements located in the 3′-untranslated region. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271, 17 081-17 090.
29. Chiquero, M. J., Pèrez-Victoria, J. M., O'Valle, F., González-Ros, J. M., Del Moral, R. G., Ferragut, J. A., Castanys, S. & Gamarro, F. (1998). Altered drug membrane permeability in a multidrug-resistant Leishmania tropica line. Biochemical Pharmacology, 55, 131-139.
30. Chow, L. M., Wong, A. K., Ullman, B. & Wirth, D. F. (1993). Cloning and functional analysis of an extrachromosomally amplified multidrug resistance-like gene in Leishmania enriettii. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 60, 195-208.
31. Compagno, D., Lampe, J. N., Bourget, C., Kutyavin, I. V., Yurchenko, L., Lukhtanov, E. A., Gorn, V. V., Gamper Jr, H. B. & Toulmé, J.-J. (1999). Antisense oligonucleotides containing modified bases inhibit in vitro translation of Leishmania amazonensis mRNAs by invading the mini-exon hairpin. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274, 8191-8198.
32. Coulson, R. M. R., Connor, V., Chen, J. C. & Ajioka, J. W. (1996). Differential expression of Leishmania major β-tubulin genes during the acquisition of promastigote infectivity. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 82, 227-236.
33. Cruz, A. K., Titus, R. & Beverley, S. M. (1993). Plasticity in chromosome number and testing of essential genes in Leishmania by targeting. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 1599-1603.
34. Cupolillo, E., Grimaldi Jr, G. & Momen, H. (1997). Genetic diversity among Leishmania (Viannia) parasites. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 91, 617-626.
35. Curotto De Lafaille, M. A., Laban, A. & Wirth, D. F. (1992). Gene expression in Leishmania: analysis of essential 5′ DNA sequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89, 2703-2707.
36. Descoteaux, A., Luo, Y., Turco, S. J. & Beverley, S. M. (1995). A specialized pathway affecting virulence glycoconjugates of Leishmania. Science, 269, 1869-1872.
37. Dresel, A. & Clos, J. (1997). Transcription of the Leishmania major hsp70-I gene locus does not proceed through the noncoding region. Experimental Parasitology, 86, 206-212.
38. Ernest, I., Callens, M., Opperdoes, F. R. & Michels, P. A. M. (1994). Pyruvate kinase of Leishmania mexicana mexicana. Cloning and analysis of the gene, overexpression in Escherichia coli and characterization of the enzyme. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 64, 43-54.
39. Espinoza, J. R., Skinner, A. C., Davies, C. R., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Arevalo, J., Dye, C., McMaster, W. R., Ajioka, J. W. & Blackwell, J. M. (1995). Extensive polymorphism at the gp63 locus in field isolates of Leishmania peruviana. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 72, 203-213.
40. Fasel, N. J., Robyr, D. C., Mauel, J. & Glaser, T. A. (1994). Identification of a histone H1-like gene expressed in Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 62, 321-324.
41. Fernandes, O., Murthy, V., Kurath, U., Degrave, W. & Campbell, D. (1994). Mini-exon gene variation in human pathogenic Leishmania species. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 66, 261-271.
42. Ferreira-Pinto, K. C., Miranda-Vilela, A. L., Anacleto, C., Fernandes, A. P. S. M., Abdo, M. C. B., Petrillo-Peixoto, M. L. & Moreira, E. S. A. (1996). Leishmania (V.) guyanensis: isolation and characterization of glucantime-resistant cell lines. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 42, 944-949.
43. Fleischmann, J. & Campbell, D. A. (1994). Expression of the Leishmania tarentolae ubiquitin-encoding and mini-exon genes. Gene, 144, 45-51.
44. Flinn, H. M. & Smith, D. F. (1992). Genomic organisation and expression of a differentially-regulated gene family from Leishmania major. Nucleic Acids Research, 20, 755-762.
45. Flinn, H. M., Rangarajan, D. & Smith, D. F. (1994). Expression of a hydrophilic surface protein in infective stages of Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 65, 259-270.
46. Fu, G. & Barker, D. (1998). Characterisation of Leishmania telomeres reveals unusual telomeric repeats and conserved telomere-associated sequence. Nucleic Acids Research, 26, 2161-2167.
47. Furger, A., Snürch, N., Kurath, U. & Roditi, I. (1997). Elements in the 3′ untranslated region of procyclin mRNA regulate expression in insect forms of Trypanosoma brucei by modulating mRNA stability and translation. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 17, 4372-4380.
48. Gay, L. S., Wilson, M. E. & Donelson, J. E. (1996). The promoter for the ribosomal RNA genes of Leishmania chagasi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 77, 193-200.
49. Genske, J. E., Cairns, B. R., Stack, S. P. & Landfear, S. M. (1991). Structure and regulation of histone H2B mRNAs from Leishmania enriettii. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 11, 240-249.
50. Ghedin, E., Zhang, W. W., Charest, H., Sundar, S., Kenney, R. T. & Matlashewski, G. (1997). Antibody response against a Leishmania donovani amastigote-stage-specific protein in patients with visceral leishmaniasis. Clinical Diagnosis and Laboratory Immunology, 4, 530-535.
51. Ghedin, E., Charest, H. & Matlashewski, G. (1998). A2rel: a constitutively expressed Leishmania gene linked to an amastigote specific gene. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 93, 23-29.
52. Gibson, W. & Stevens, J. (1999). Genetic exchange in the Trypanosomatidae. Advances in Parasitology, 43, 1-46.
53. González-Aseguinolaza, G., Almazán, F., Rodríguez, F., Marquet, A. & Larraga, V. (1997). Cloning of the gp63 surface protease of Leishmania infantum. Differential post-translational modifications correlated with different infective forms. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1361, 92-102.
54. Graham, S. V. (1995). Mechanisms of stage-regulated gene expression in Kinetoplastida. Parasitology Today, 11, 217-223.
55. Grondin, K., Roy, G. & Ouellette, M. (1996). Formation of extrachromosomal circular amplicons with direct or inverted duplications in drug-resistant Leishmania tarentolae. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 16, 3587-3595.
56. Grondin, K., Haimeur, A., Mukhopadhyay, R., Rosen, B. P. & Ouellette, M. (1997). Co-amplification of the γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene gsh1 and of the ABC transporter gene pgpA in arsenite-resistant Leishmania tarentolae. EMBO Journal, 16, 3057-3065.
57. Grondin, K., Kündig, C., Roy, G. & Ouellette, M. (1998). Linear amplicons as precursors of amplified circles in methotrexate-resistant Leishmania tarentolae. Nucleic Acids Research, 26, 3372-3378.
58. Gueiros-Filho, F. J. & Beverley, S.M. (1996). Selection against the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (DHFR-TS) locus as a probe of genetic alterations in Leishmania major. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 16, 5655-5663.
59. Gueiros-Filho, F. J., Viola, J. P. B., Gomes, F. C. A., Farina, M., Lins, U., Bertho, A. L., Wirth, D. F. & Lopes, U. G. (1995). Leishmania amazonensis: multidrug resistance in vinblastine-resistant promastigotes is associated with rhodamine 123 efflux, DNA amplification, and RNA overexpression of a Leishmania mdr1 gene. Experimental Parasitology, 81, 480-490.
60. Günzl, A., Ullu, E., Dörner, M., Fragoso, S. P., Hoffmann, K. F., Milner, J. D., Morita, Y., Nguu, E. K., Vanacova, S., Wünsch, S., Dare, A. O., Kwon, H. & Tschudi, C. (1997). Transcription of the Trypanosoma brucei spliced leader RNA gene is dependent only on the presence of upstream regulatory elements. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 85, 67-76.
61. Haimeur, A. & Ouellette, M. (1998). Gene amplification in Leishmania tarentolae selected for resistance to sodium stibogluconate. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 42, 1689-1694.
62. Hajduk, S. L., Sabatini, R. S. (1996). RNA editing. Post-transcriptional restructuring of genetic information. In Molecular Biology of Parasitic Protozoa, eds Smith, D. S. & Parsons, M. pp. 134-158. Oxford: IRL Press.
63. Handman, E., Osborn, A. H., Symons, F., Van Driel, R. & Cappai, R. (1995). The Leishmania promastigote surface antigen 2 complex is differentially expressed during the parasite life cycle. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 74, 189-200.
64. Hanekamp, T. & Langer, P. J. (1991). Molecular karyotype and chromosomal localization of genes encoding two major surface glycoproteins, gp63 and gp46/M2, hsp70, and β-tubulin in cloned strains of several Leishmania species. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 48, 27-38.
65. Hanson, S., Adelman, J. & Ullman, B. (1992). Amplification and molecular cloning of the ornithine decarboxylase gene of Leishmania donovani. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 267, 2350-2359.
66. Hehl, A., Vassella, E., Braun, R. & Roditi, I. (1994). A conserved stem-loop structure in the 3′ untranslated region of procyclin mRNAs regulates expression in Trypanosoma brucei. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 370-374.
67. Henderson, D. M., Sifri, C. D., Rodgers, M., Wirth, D. F., Hendrickson, N. & Ullman, B. (1992). Multidrug resistance in Leishmania donovani is conferred by amplification of a gene homologous to the mammalian mdr1 gene. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 12, 2855-2895.
68. Hendrickson, N., Sifri, C. D., Henderson, D. M., Allen, T., Wirth, D. F. & Ullman, B. (1993). Molecular characterization of the lmdr1 multidrug resistance gene from Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 60, 53-64.
69. Hübel, A. & Clos, J. (1996). The genomic organization of the HSP83 gene locus is conserved in three Leishmania species. Experimental Parasitology, 82, 225-228.
70. Hübel, A., Brandau, S., Dresel, A. & Clos, J. (1995). A member of the clpB family of stress proteins is expressed during heat shock in Leishmania spp. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 70, 107-118.
71. Hübel, A., Krobitsch, S., Hörauf, A. & Clos, J. (1997). Leishmania major Hsp100 is required chiefly in the mammalian stage of the parasite. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 17, 5987-5995.
72. Inga, R., De Doncker, S., Gomez, J., Lopez, M., Garcia, R., Le Ray, D., Arevalo, J. & Dujardin, J.-C. (1998). Relation between variation in copy number of ribosomal RNA encoding genes and size of harbouring chromosomes in Leishmania of subgenus Viannia. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 92, 219-228.
73. Iovannisci, D. M. & Beverley, S. M. (1989). Structural alterations of chromosome 2 in Leishmania major as evidence for diploidy, including spontaneous amplification of the mini-exon array. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 34, 177-188.
74. Ivens, A. C. & Blackwell, J. M. (1996). Unravelling the Leishmania genome. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development, 6, 704-710.
75. Ivens, A. C. & Smith, D. F. (1997). Parasite genome analysis. A global map of the Leishmania major genome: prelude to genomic sequencing. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 91, 111-115.
76. Jiménez-Ruiz, A., Boceta, C., Bonay, P., Requena, J. M. & Alonso, C. (1998). Cloning, sequencing, and expression of the PSA genes of Leishmania infantum. European Journal of Biochemistry, 251, 389-397.
77. Johnson, P. J., Kooter, J. M. & Borst, P. (1987). Inactivation of transcription by UV irradiation of T. brucei provides evidence for a multicistronic transcription unit including a VSG gene. Cell, 51, 273-281.
78. Kapler, G. M., Zhang, K. & Beverley, S. M. (1987). Sequence and S1 nuclease mapping of the 5′ region of the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase gene of Leishmania major. Nucleic Acids Research, 15, 3369-3383.
79. Kapler, G. M., Zhang, K. & Beverley, S. M. (1990). Nuclease mapping and DNA sequence analysis of transcripts from the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (R) region of Leishmania major. Nucleic Acids Research, 18, 6399-6408.
80. Kawazu, S.-I., Lu, H.-G. & Chang, K.-P. (1997). Stage-independent splicing of transcripts from two heterogeneous neighboring genes in Leishmania amazonensis. Gene, 196, 49-59.
81. Kemp, D. J., Coppel, R. L. & Anders, R. F. (1987). Repetitive proteins and genes of malaria. Annual Review of Microbiology, 41, 181-208.
82. Kerby, B. R. & Detke, S. (1993). Reduced purine accumulation is encoded on an amplified DNA in Leishmania amazonensis resistant to toxic nucleosides. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 60, 171-186.
83. Kink, J. A. & Chang, K.-P. (1987). Tunicamycin-resistant Leishmania mexicana amazonensis: expression of virulence associated with an increased activity of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase and amplification of its presumptive gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 84, 1253-1257.
84. Krobitsch, S., Brandau, S., Hoyer, C., Schmetz, C., Hübel, A. & Clos, J. (1998). Leishmania donovani heat shock protein 100. Characterization and function in amastigote stage differentiation. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 6488-6494.
85. Lamontagne, J. & Papadopoulou, B. (1999). Developmental regulation of spliced leader RNA gene in Leishmania donovani amastigotes is mediated by specific polyadenylation. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274, 6602-6609.
86. Langford, C. K., Ewbank, S. A., Hanson, S. S., Ullman, B. & Landfear, S. M. (1992). Molecular characterization of two glucose transporter superfamily members from the parasitic protozoan Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 55, 51-64.
87. Lanzer, M., Fischer, K. & LeBlancq, S. (1995). Parasitism and chromosome dynamics in protozoan parasites: is there a connection? Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 70, 1-8.
88. LeBowitz, J. H., Smith, H. Q., Rusche, L. & Beverley, S. M. (1993). Coupling of poly(A) site selection and trans-splicing in Leishmania. Genes and Development, 7, 996-1007.
89. Lee, M. G.-S. (1996). An RNA polymerase II promoter in the hsp70 locus of Trypanosoma brucei. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 16, 1220-1230.
90. Légaré, D., Hettema, E. & Ouellette, M. (1994). The P-glycoprotein-related gene family in Leishmania. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 68, 81-91.
91. Leon, W., Fouts, D. L. & Manning, J. (1978). Sequence of the 16S and 26S rRNA genes in the pathogenic hemoflagellate Leishmania donovani. Nucleic Acids Research, 5, 491-504.
92. Lighthalll, G. K. & Giannini, S. H. (1992). The chromosomes of Leishmania. Parasitology Today, 8, 192-199.
93. Lohman, K. L., Langer, P. J. & McMahon-Pratt, D. (1990). Molecular cloning and characterization of the immunologically protective surface glycoprotein GP46/M-2 of Leishmania amazonensis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 8393-8397.
94. 2 subunit of ribonucleotide reductase in hydroxyurea-resistant Leishmania. Parasitology Research, 85, 188-193.
95. Matthews, K. R., Tschudi, C. & Ullu, E. (1994). A common pyrimidine-rich motif governs transsplicing and polyadenylation of tubulin polycistronic pre-mRNA in trypanosomes. Genes and Development, 8, 491-501.
96. McCoy, J. J., Beetham, J. K., Ochs, D. E., Donelson, J. E. & Wilson, M. E. (1998). Regulatory sequences and a novel gene in the msp (GP63) gene cluster of Leishmania chagasi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 95, 251-265.
97. McCutchan, T. F., De La Cruz, V. F., Good, M. F. & Wellems, T. E. (1988). Antigenic diversity in Plasmodium falciparum. Progress in Allergy, 41, 173-192.
98. McKean, P. G., Delahay, R., Pimenta, P. F. P. & Smith, D. F. (1997). Characterisation of a second protein encoded by the differentially regulated LmcDNA16 gene family of Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 85, 221-231.
99. McKoy, G., Badal, M., Prescott, Q., Lux, H. & Hart, D. T. (1997). Characterisation of phosphoglycerate kinase genes in Leishmania major and evidence for the absence of a third closely related gene or isoenzyme. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 90, 169-181.
100. Meade, J. C., Hudson, K. M., Stringer, S. L. & Stringer, J. R. (1989). A tandem pair of Leishmania donovani cation transporting ATPase genes encode isoforms that are differentially expressed. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 33, 81-92.
101. Meade, J. C., Coombs, G. H., Mottram, J. C., Steele, P. E. & Stringer, J. R. (1991). Conservation of cation-transporting ATPase genes in Leishmania. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 45, 29-38.
102. Miller, S. I., Landfear, S. M. & Wirth, D. F. (1986). Cloning and characterization of a Leishmania gene encoding a RNA spliced leader sequence. Nucleic Acids Research, 14, 7341-7360.
103. Moore, L. L., Santrich, C. & LeBowitz, J. H. (1996). Stage-specific expression of the Leishmania mexicana paraflagellar rod protein PFR-2. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 80, 125-135.
104. Mottram, J. C., Robertson, C. D., Coombs, G. H. & Barry, J. D. (1992). A developmentally regulated cysteine proteinase gene of Leishmania mexicana. Molecular Microbiology, 6, 1925-1932.
105. Mottram, J. C., Kinnaird, J. H., Shiels, B. R., Tait, A. & Barry, J. D. (1993). A novel CDC2-related protein kinase from Leishmania mexicana, LmmCRK1, is post-translationally regulated during the life cycle. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 21 044-21 062.
106. Mottram, J. C., McCready, B. P., Brown, K. G. & Grant, K. M. (1996). Gene disruptions indicate an essential function for the LmmCRK1 cdc2-related kinase of Leishmania mexicana. Molecular Microbiology, 22, 573-582.
107. Mottram, J. C., Frame, M. J., Brooks, D. R., Tetley, L., Hutchison, J. E., Souza, A. E. & Coombs, G. H. (1997). The multiple cpb cysteine proteinase genes of Leishmania mexicana encode isoenzymes that differ in their stage regulation and substrate preferences. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 14 285-14 293.
108. Muhich, M. L. & Boothroyd, J. C. (1988). Polycistronic transcripts in trypanosomes and their accumulation during heat shock: evidence for a precursor role in mRNA synthesis. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 8, 3837-3846.
109. Murray, P. J. & Spithill, T. W. (1991). Variants of a Leishmania surface antigen derived from a multigenic family. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 266, 24 477-24 484.
110. Myler, P. J., Tripp, C. A., Thomas, L., Venkataraman, G. M., Merlin, G. & Stuart, K. D. (1993). The LD1 amplified element from Leishmania infantum encodes a homolog of ribosomal protein L37. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 62, 147-152.
111. Nilsen, T. W. (1995). trans-Splicing: an update. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 73, 1-6.
112. Nourbakhsh, F., Uliana, S. R. B. & Smith, D. F. (1996). Characterisation and expression of a stage-regulated gene of Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 76, 201-213.
113. Nozaki, T. & Cross, G. A. M. (1995). Effects of 3′ untranslated and intergenic regions on gene expression in Trypanosoma cruzi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 75, 55-67.
114. Olmo, A., Arrebola, R., Bernier, V., González-Pacanowska, D. & Ruiz-Pérez, L. M. (1995). Co-existence of circular and multiple linear amplicons in methotrexate-resistant Leishmania. Nucleic Acids Research, 23, 2856-2864.
115. Ortiz, G. & Segovia, M. (1996). Characterisation of the novel junctions of two minichromosomes of Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 82, 137-144.
116. Ortiz, G., Navarro, M. & Segovia, M. (1995). Location in the source chromosome of the 180-kb minichromosome of Leishmania major and characterisation of the novel junction. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 71, 153-161.
117. Panton, L. J., Tesh, R. B., Nadeau, K. C. & Beverley, S. M. (1991). A test for genetic exchange in mixed infections of Leishmania major in the sandfly Phlebotomus papatasi. Journal of Protozoology, 38, 224-228.
118. Papadopoulou, B. & Dumas, C. (1997). Parameters controlling the rate of gene targeting frequency in the protozoan parasite Leishmania. Nucleic Acids Research, 25, 4278-4286.
119. Paramchuk, W. J., Ismail, S. O., Bhatia, A. & Gedamu, L. (1997). Cloning, characterization and overexpression of two iron superoxide dismutase cDNAs from Leishmania chagasi: role in pathogenesis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 90, 203-221.
120. Pays, E. & Vanhamme, L. (1996). Developmental regulation of gene expression in African trypanosomes. In Molecular Biology of Parasitic Protozoa, eds Smith, D. & Parsons, M. pp. 88-114. Oxford: IRL Press.
121. Quijada, L., Soto, M., Alonso, C. & Requena, J. M. (1997). Analysis of post-transcriptional regulation operating on transcription products of the tandemly linked Leishmania infantum hsp70 genes. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 4493-4499.
122. Ramamoorthy, R., Donelson, J. E., Paetz, K. E., Maybodi, M., Roberts, S. C. & Wilson, M. E. (1992). Three distinct RNAs for the surface protease gp63 are differentially expressed during development of Leishmania chagasi promastigotes to an infectious form. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 267, 1888-1895.
123. Ramamoorthy, R., Swihart, K. G., McCoy, J. J., Wilson, M. E. & Donelson, J. E. (1995). Intergenic regions between tandem gp63 genes influence the differential expression of gp63 RNAs in Leishmania chagasi promastigotes. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 12 133-12 139.
124. Ramamoorthy, R., Donelson, J. E. & Wilson, M. E. (1996). 5′ sequences essential for trans-splicing of msp (gp63) RNAs in Leishmania chagasi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 77, 65-76.
125. Ravel, C., Wincker, P., Bastien, P., Blaineau, C. & Pagès, M. (1995). A polymorphic minisatellite sequence in the subtelomeric regions of chromosomes I and V in Leishmania infantum. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 74, 31-41.
126. Ravel, C., Wincker, P., Blaineau, C., Britto, C., Bastien, P. & Pagès, M. (1996). Medium range restriction maps of five chromosomes of Leishmania infantum and localization of size variable regions. Genomics, 35, 509-516.
127. Ravel, C., Dubessay, P., Britto, C., Blaineau, C., Bastien, P. & Pagès, M. (1999). High conservation of the fine-scale organisation of chromosome 5 between two pathogenic Leishmania species. Nucleic Acids Research, 15, 2473-2477.
128. Requena, J. M., Soto, M., Quijada, L., Carrillo, G. & Alonso, C. (1997). A region containing repeated elements is associated with transcriptional termination of Leishmania infantum ribosomal RNA genes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 84, 101-110.
129. Roberts, S. C., Swihart, K. G., Agey, M. W., Ramamoorthy, R., Wilson, M. E. & Donelson, J. E. (1993). Sequence diversity and organization of the msp gene family encoding gp63 of Leishmania chagasi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 62, 157-172.
130. Rodriguez, N., De Lima, H., Rodriguez, A., Brewster, S. & Barker, D. (1997). Genomic DNA repeat from Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis (Venezuelan strain) containing simple repeats and microsatellites. Parasitology, 115, 349-358.
131. n loci. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 65, 271-282.
132. Rovai, L., Tripp, C., Stuart, K. & Simpson, L. (1992). Recurrent polymorphisms in small chromosomes of Leishmania tarentolae after nutrient stress or subcloning. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 50, 115-126.
133. Saito, R. M., Elgort, M. G. & Campbell, D. A. (1994). A conserved upstream element is essential for the transcription of the Leishmania tarentolae mini-exon gene. EMBO Journal, 13, 5460-5469.
134. Schönian, G., Schweynoch, C., Zlateva, K., Oskam, L., Kroon, N., Gräser, Y. & Presber, W. (1996). Identification and determination of the relationships of species and strains within the genus Leishmania using single primers in the polymerase chain reaction. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 77, 19-29.
135. Schümperli, D. (1988). Multilevel regulation of replication-dependent histone genes. Trends in Genetics, 4, 187-191.
136. Schürch, N., Hehl, A., Vassella, E., Braun, R. & Roditi, I. (1994). Accurate polyadenylation of procyclin mRNAs in Trypanosoma brucei is determined by pyrimidine-rich elements in the intergenic regions. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 14, 3668-3675.
137. Segovia, M. (1994). Leishmania gene amplification: a mechanism of drug resistance. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 88, 123-130.
138. Segovia, M. & Ortiz, G. (1997). LD1 amplifications in Leishmania. Parasitology Today, 13, 342-348.
139. Shakarian, A. M., Ellis, S. L., Mallinson, D. J., Olafson, R. W. & Dwyer, D. M. (1997). Two tandemly arrayed genes encode the (histidine) secretory acid phosphatases of Leishmania donovani. Gene, 196, 127-137.
140. Shapira M. & Pedraza, P. (1990). Sequence analysis and transcriptional activation of heat shock protein 83 of Leishmania mexicana amazonensis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 42, 247-256.
141. Simon-Tov, M. M., Aly, R., Shapira, M. & Jaffe, C. L. (1996). Cloning from Leishmania major of a developmentally regulated gene, c-lpk2, for the catalytic subunit of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 77, 201-215.
142. Simpson, L. (1997). The genomic organization of guide RNA genes in kinetoplastid protozoa: several conundrums and their solutions. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 86, 133-141.
143. Skeiky, Y. A., Benson, D. R., Elwasila, M., Badaro, R., Burns Jr, J. M. & Reed, S. G. (1994). Antigens shared by Leishmania species and Trypanosoma cruzi: immunological comparison of the acidic ribosomal P0 proteins. Infection and Immunity, 62, 1643-1651.
144. Soto, M., Requena, J. M., Gomez, L. C., Navarette, I. & Alonso, C. (1992). Molecular characterization of a Leishmania donovani infantum antigen identified as histone H2A. European Journal of Biochemistry, 205, 211-216.
145. Soto, M., Requena, J. M. & Alonso, C. (1993a). Isolation, characterization and analysis of the expression of the Leishmania ribosomal P0 proteins. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 61, 265-274.
146. Soto, M., Requena, J. M., Garcia, M., Gomez, L. C., Navarette, I. & Alonso, C. (1993b). Genomic organization and expression of two independent gene arrays coding for two antigenic acidic ribosomal proteins of Leishmania. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 21 835-21 843.
147. Soto, M., Requena, J. M., Quijada, L. & Alonso, C. (1996). Organization, transcription and regulation of the Leishmania infantum histone H3 genes. Biochemical Journal, 318, 813-819.
148. Soto, M., Quijada, L., Alonso, C. & Requena, J. M. (1997). Molecular cloning and analysis of expression of the Leishmania infantum histone H4 genes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 90, 439-447.
149. Spithill, T. W. & Samaras, N. (1987). Genomic organization, chromosomal location and transcription of dispersed and repeated tubulin genes in Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 24, 23-38.
150. Stein, D. A., Cairns, B. R. & Landfear, S. M. (1990). Developmentally regulated transporter in Leishmania is encoded by a family of clustered genes. Nucleic Acids Research, 18, 1549-1557.
151. Steinkraus, H. B., Greer, J. M., Stephenson, D. C. & Langer, P. J. (1993). Sequence heterogeneity and polymorphic gene arrangements of the Leishmania guyanensis gp63 genes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 62, 173-186.
152. Stiles, J. K., Hicock, P. I., Kong, L., Xue, L. & Meade, J. C. (1999). Leishmania donovani proton translocating P-type ATPases LDH1A and LDH1B: trans-splicing and polyadenylation of transcripts in amastigotes and promastigotes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 103, 105-109.
153. Streit, J. A., Donelson, J. E., Agey, M. W. & Wilson, M. E. (1996). Developmental changes in the expression of Leishmania chagasi gp63 and heat shock proteins in a human macrophage cell line. Infection and Immunity, 64, 1810-1818.
154. Stuart, K., Allen, T. E., Heidmann, S. & Seiwert, S. D. (1997). RNA editing in kinetoplastid protozoa. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 61, 105-120.
155. Taylor, M. C., Kelly, J. M., Chapman, C. J., Fairlamb, A. H. & Miles, M. A. (1994). The structure, organization, and expression of the Leishmania donovani gene encoding trypanothione reductase. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 64, 293-301.
156. Tibayrenc, M. (1995). Population genetics of parasitic protozoa and other microorganisms. Advances in Parasitology, 36, 47-115.
157. Tibayrenc, M., Kjellberg, F. & Ayala, F. J. (1990). A clonal theory of parasitic protozoa: the population structures of Entamoeba, Giardia, Leishmania, Naegleria, Plasmodium, Trichomonas, and Trypanosoma and their medical and taxonomical consequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 2414-2418.
158. Tibayrenc, M., Kjellberg, F., Arnaud, J., Oury, B., Brenière, S. F., Dardé, M.-L. & Ayala, F. J. (1991). Are eukaryotic microorganisms clonal or sexual? A population genetics vantage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 88, 5129-5133.
159. Tschudi, C. (1995). Transcription and RNA processing in Trypanosoma brucei. In Molecular Approaches to Parasitology, eds Boothroyd, J. C. & Komuniecki, R. pp. 255-268. New York: Wiley-Liss.
160. Uliana, S. R. B., Fischer, W., Stempliuk, V. A. & Floeter-Winter, L. M. (1996). Structural and functional characterization of the Leishmania amazonensis ribosomal RNA promoter. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 76, 245-255.
161. Ullu, E., Matthews, K. R. & Tschudi, C. (1993). Temporal order of RNA-processing reactions in trypanosomes: rapid trans splicing precedes polyadenylation of newly synthesized tubulin transcripts. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 13, 720-725.
162. Vanhamme, L. & Pays, E. (1995). Control of gene expression in trypanosomes. Microbiological Reviews, 59, 223-240.
163. Van Leeuwen, F., Taylor, M. C., Mondragon, A., Moreau, H., Gibson, W., Kieft, R. & Borst, P. (1998). β-D-Glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil is a conserved DNA modification in kinetoplastid protozoans and is abundant in their telomeres. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95, 2366-2371.
164. Vassella, E., Braun, R. & Roditi, I. (1994). Control of polyadenylation and alternative splicing of transcripts from adjacent genes in a procyclin expression site: a dual role for polypyrimidine tracts in trypanosomes? Nucleic Acids Research, 22, 1359-1364.
165. Victior, K., Dujardin, J., De Doncker, S., Barker, D., Arevalo, J., Hamers, R. & Le Ray, D. (1995). Plasticity of gp63 gene organisation in Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and Leishmania (Viannia) peruviana. Parasitology, 111, 265-273.
166. Voth, B. R., Kelly, B. L., Joshi, P. B., Ivens, A. C. & McMaster, W. R. (1998). Differentially expressed Leishmania major gp63 genes encode cell surface leishmanolysin with distinct signals for glycosylphos-phatidylinositol attachment. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 93, 31-41.
167. Wahle, E. & Keller, W. (1992). The biochemistry of 3′-end cleavage and polyadenylation of messenger RNA precursors. Annual Reviews in Biochemistry, 61, 419-440.
168. Webb, J. R., Button, L. L. & McMaster, W. R. (1991). Heterogeneity of the genes encoding the major surface glycoprotein of Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 48, 173-184.
169. Webb, J. R., Campos-Neto, A., Skeiky, Y. A. W. & Reed, S. G. (1997). Molecular characterization of the heat inducible LmST11 protein of Leishmania major. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 89, 179-193.
170. Webb, J. R., Campos-Neto, A., Ovendale, P. J., Martin, T. I., Stromberg, E. J., Badaro, R. & Reed, S. G. (1998). Human and murine immune responses to a novel Leishmania major recombinant protein encoded by members of a multicopy gene family. Infection and Immunity, 66, 3279-3289.
171. Wiese, M. (1998). A mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase homologue of Leishmania mexicana is essential for parasite survival in the infected host. EMBO Journal, 17, 2619-2628.
172. Wiese, M., Ilg, T., Lottspeich, F. & Overath, P. (1995). Ser/Thr-rich repetitive motifs as targets for phosphoglycan modifications in Leishmania mexicana secreted acid phosphatase. EMBO Journal, 14, 1067-1074.
173. Wilson, K., Beverley, S. M. & Ullman, B. (1992). Stable amplification of a linear extrachromosomal DNA in mycophenolic acid-resistant Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 55, 197-206.
174. Wilson, M. E., Paetz, K. E., Ramamoorthy, R. & Donelson, J. E. (1993). The effect of ongoing protein synthesis on the steady state levels of Gp63 RNAs in Leishmania chagasi. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 15 731-15 736.
175. Wincker, P., Ravel, C., Blaineau, C., Pagès, M., Jauffret, Y., Dedet, J.-P. & Bastien, P. (1996). The Leishmania genome comprises 36 chromosomes conserved across widely divergent human pathogenic species. Nucleic Acids Research, 24, 1688-1694.
176. Wincker, P., Ravel, C., Britto, C., Dubessay, P., Bastien, P., Pagès, M. & Blaineau, C. (1997). A direct method for the chromosomal assignment of DNA markers in Leishmania. Gene, 194, 77-80.
177. Wong, A. K.-C. (1995). Molecular genetics of the parasitic protozoan Leishmania. Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 73, 235-240.
178. Wong, A. K.-C., Curotto De Lafaille, M. A. & Wirth, D. F. (1994). Identification of a cis-acting gene regulatory element from the lemdr1 locus of Leishmania enriettii. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 269, 26 497-26 502.
179. Yu, M. C., Sturm, N. R., Saito, R. M., Roberts, T. G. & Campbell, D. A. (1998). Single nucleotide resolution of promoter activity and protein binding for the Leishmania tarentolae spliced leader RNA gene. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 94, 265-281.
180. Zhang, W.-W., Charest, H., Ghedin, E. & Matlashewski, G. (1996). Identification and overexpression of the A2 amastigote-specific protein in Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 78, 79-90.