Optic nerve and neuroprotection strategies

Eye

Volumn 18, Issue 11, 2004, Pages 1075-1084

  Osborne, Neville N ^a   Chidlow, G ^a   Layton, C J ^a   Wood, J P M ^a   Casson, R J ^a   Melena, J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Glaucoma; Ischaemia; Optic nerve

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ADENOSINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; AMPA RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BENZAMIL; BEPRIDIL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETAXOLOL; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CALPASTATIN; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; GABAPENTIN; GROWTH FACTOR; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROTROPHIN; NIPECOTIC ACID; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; PHOSPHOLIPASE C INHIBITOR; POTASSIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; PROPENTOFYLLINE; PROTEIN KINASE C INHIBITOR; SCAVENGER; SEROTONIN 1A AGONIST; SODIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG;

CELL DAMAGE; CELL DEATH; CELL SURVIVAL; DISEASE MODEL; EYE BLOOD FLOW; GLAUCOMA; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; ISCHEMIA; LIFESPAN; MEDICAL INFORMATION; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; MYELINATED NERVE; NERVE CELL; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NERVE FIBER; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; NONMYELINATED NERVE; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; REVIEW; WHITE MATTER;

EID: 9944255176     PISSN: 0950222X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.eye.6701588     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Quigley HA, Addicks EM. Regional differences in the structure of the lamina cribrosa and their relation to glaucomatous optic nerve damage. Arch Ophthalmol 1981; 99: 137-143.
2. Hernandez MR, Pena JD. The optic nerve head in glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115: 389-395.
3. Quigley HA. Neuronal death in glaucoma. Prog Retin Eye Res 1999; 18: 39-57.
4. Drance SM. Bowman Lecture. Glaucoma - changing concepts. Eye 1992; 6: 337-345.
5. Evans DW, Harris A, Garrett M, Chung HS, Kagemann L. Glaucoma patients demonstrate faulty autoregulation of ocular blood flow during posture change. Br J Ophthalmol 1999; 83: 809-813.
6. Flammer J, Orgul S, Costa VP, Orzalesi N, Krieglstein GK, Serra LM et al. The impact of ocular blood flow in glaucoma. Prog Retin Eye Res 2002; 21: 359-393.
7. Biousse V, Brown MD, Newman NJ, Allen JC, Rosenfeld J, Meola G et al. De novo 14484 mitochondrial DNA mutation in monozygotic twins discordant for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. Neurology 1997; 49: 1136-1138.
8. Biousse V, Bousser MG, Schaison M. Normal pressure pseudotumor cerebri. J Neuroophthalmol 1997; 17: 279-280.
9. Levin LA, Gordon LK. Retinal ganglion cell disorders: types of treatement. Exp Eye Res 2002; 21: 465-484.
10. Yoles E, Schwartz M. Elevation of intraocular glutamate levels in rats with partial lesion of the optic nerve. Arch Ophthalmol 1998; 116: 906-910.
11. Straten G, Schmeer C, Kretz A, Gerhardt E, Kugler S, Schutz JB et al. Potential synergistic protection of retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced apoptosis by adenoviral administration of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis. Neurobiol Dis 2002; 11: 123-133.
12. Allcutt D, Berry M, Sievers J. A quantitative comparison of the reactions of retinal ganglion cells to optic nerve crush in neonatal and adult mice. Brain Res 1984; 318: 219-230.
13. Allcutt D, Berry M, Sievers J. A qualitative comparison of the reactions of retinal ganglion cell axons to optic nerve crush in neonatal and adult mice. Brain Res 1984; 318: 231-240.
14. Villegas-Perez MP, Vidal-Sanz M, Rasminsky M, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Rapid and protracted phases of retinal ganglion cell loss follow axotomy in the optic nerve of adult rats. J Neurobiol 1993; 24 23-36.
15. Berkelaar M, Clarke DB, Wang YC, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Axotomy results in delayed death and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in adult rats. J Neurosci 1994; 14: 4368-4374.
16. Kurimoto T, Miyoshi T Suzuki A, Yakura T, Watanabe M, Mimura O et al. Apoptotic death of beta cells after optic nerve transection in adult cats. J Neurosci 2003; 23: 4023-4028.
17. Isenmann S, Kretz A, Cellerino A. Molecular determinants of retinal ganglion cell development, survival, and regeneration. Prog Retin Eye Res 2003; 22: 483-543.
18. Siliprandi R, Canella R, Carmignoto G, Schiavo N, Zanellato A, Zanoni R et al. N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced neurotoxicity in the adult rat retina. Vis Neurosci 1992; 8: 567-573.
19. Chidlow G, Osborne NN. Rat retinal ganglion cell loss caused by kainate, NMDA and ischemia correlates with a reduction in mRNA and protein of Thy-1 and neurofilament light. Brain Res 2003; 963 298-306.
20. Vorwerk CK, Naskar R, Schuettauf F, Quinto K, Zurakowski D, Gochenauer G et al. Depression of retinal glutamate transporter function leads to elevated intravitreal glutamate levels and ganglion cell death. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 3615-3621.
21. Osborne NN, Ugarte M, Chao M, Chidlow G, Bae JH, Wood JP et al. Neuroprotection in relation to retinal ischemia and relevance to glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 43(Suppl 1): S102-S128.
22. Sucher NJ, Lipton SA, Dreyer EB. Molecular basis of glutamate toxicity in retinal ganglion cells. Vis Res 1997; 37: 3483-3493.
23. Osborne NN, Larsen AK. Antigens associated with specific retinal cells are affected by ischaemia caused by raised intraocular pressure: effect of glutamate antagonists. Neurochem Int 1996; 29: 263-270.
24. Hartveit E, Brandstatter JH, Enz R, Wassle H. Expression of the mRNA of seven metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1 to 7) in the rat retina. An in situ hybridization study on tissue sections and isolated cells. Eur J Neurosci 1995; 7: 1472-1483.
25. Osborne NN, Melena J, Chidlow G, Wood JP. A hypothesis to explain ganglion cell death caused by vascular insults at the optic nerve head: possible implication for the treatment of glaucoma. Br J Ophthahnol 2001; 85: 1252-1259.
26. Neufeld AH, Hernandez MR, Gonzalez M. Nitric oxide synthase in the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115: 497-503.
27. Liu B, Neufeld AH. Expression of nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS-2) in reactive astrocytes of the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. Glia 2000; 30: 178-186.
28. Neufeld AH, Sawada A, Becker B. Inhibition of nitric-oxide synthase 2 by aminoguanidine provides neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells in a rat model of chronic glaucoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 9944-9948.
29. Kristian T, Siesjo BK. Calcium-related damage in ischemia. Life Sci 1996; 59: 357-367.
30. Sadun AA. Mitochondrial optic neuropathies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 72: 423-425.
31. Kroemer G. The proto-oncogene Bcl-2 and its role in regulating apoptosis. Nat Med 1997; 3: 614-620.
32. Sadun AA, Sadun F. Leber hereditary optic neuropathy. Ophthalmology 1996; 103: 201-202.
33. Ugarte M, Osborne NN. Zinc in the retina. Prog Neurobiol 2001; 64: 219-249.
34. Biousse V. Carotid disease and the eye. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 1997; 8: 16-26.
35. Foster RE, Connors BW, Waxman SG. Rat optic nerve: electrophysiological, pharmacological and anatomical studies during development. Brain Res 1982; 255: 371-386.
36. Garthwaite G, Brown G, Batchelor AM, Goodwin DA, Garthwaite J. Mechanisms of ischaemic damage to central white matter axons: a quantitative histological analysis using rat optic nerve. Neuroscience 1999; 94: 1219-1230.
37. Stys PK, Waxman SG, Ransom BR. Ionic mechanisms of anoxic injury in mammalian CNS white matter: role of Na + channels and Na(+)-Ca2+ exchanger. J Neurosci 1992; 12: 430-439.
38. Stys PK. Protective effects of antiarrhythmic agents against anoxic injury in CNS white matter. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1995; 15: 425-432.
39. Stys PK, Lesiuk H. Correlation between electrophysiological effects of mexiletine and ischemic protection in central nervous system white matter. Neuroscience 1996; 71: 27-36.
40. Stys PK, Hubatsch DA, Leppanen LL. Effects of K+ channel blockers on the anoxic response of CNS myelinated axons. Neuroreport 1998; 9: 447-453.
41. Waxman SG, Black JA, Stys PK, Ransom BR. Ultrastructural concomitants of anoxic injury and early post-anoxic recovery in rat optic nerve. Brain Res 1992; 574: 105-119.
42. Osborne NN, Chidlow G, Wood JP, Schmidt KG, Casson R, Melena J. Expectations in the treatment of retinal diseases: neuroprotection. Curr Eye Res 2001; 22: 321-332.
43. Orrenius S, Ankarcrona M, Nicotera P. Mechanisms of calcium-related cell death. Adv Neurol 1996; 71: 137-149 discussion 149-151.
44. Stys PK, Lopachin RM. Mechanisms of calcium and sodium fluxes in anoxic myelinated central nervous system axons. Neuroscience 1998; 82: 21-32.
45. Brown AM, Westenbroek RE, Catterall WA, Ransom BR. Axonal L-type Ca2+ channels and anoxic injury in rat CNS white matter. J Neurophysiol 2001; 85: 900-911.
46. Malek SA, Coderre E, Stys PK. Aberrant chloride transport contributes to anoxic/ischemic white matter injury. J Neurosci 2003; 23: 3826-3836.
47. Fern R, Waxman SG, Ransom BR. Modulation of anoxic injury in CNS white matter by adenosine and interaction between adenosine and GABA. J Neurophysiol 1994; 72: 2609-2616.
48. Brown AM, Wender R, Ransom BR. Ionic mechanisms of aglycemic axon injury in mammalian central white matter. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2001; 21: 385-395.
49. Fern R, Ransom BR, Waxman SG. Voltage-gated calcium channels in CNS white matter: role in anoxic injury. J Neurophysiol 1995; 74: 369-377.
50. Fern R, Waxman SG, Ransom BR. Endogenous GABA attenuates CNS white matter dysfunction following anoxia. J Neurosci 1995; 15 699-708.
51. Ijzerman AP, Nagesser A, Garritsen A. The membrane stabilizing activity of beta-adrenoceptor ligands. Quantitative evaluation of the interaction of phenoxypropanolamines with the [3H] batrachotoxinin A 20-alpha-benzoate binding site on voltage-sensitive sodium channels in rat brain. Biochem Pharmacol 1987; 36: 4239-4244.
52. Chidlow G, Melena J, Osborne NN. Betaxolol, a beta(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist, reduces Na(+) influx into cortical synaptosomes by direct interaction with Na(+) channels: comparison with other beta-adrenoceptor antagonists. Br J Pharmacol 2000; 130 759-766.
53. Catterall WA, Curtis BM. Molecular properties of voltage-sensitive calcium channels. Soc Gen Physiol Ser 1987; 41 201-213.
54. Block F, Schwarz M. The b-wave of the electroretinogram as an index of retinal ischemia. Gen Pharmacol 1998; 30: 281-287.
55. Chidlow G, Schmidt KG, Wood JP, Melena J, Osborne NN. Alpha-lipoic acid protects the retina against ischemia-reperfusion. Neuropharmacology 2002; 43: 1015-1025.
56. Wood JP, Schmidt KG, Melena J, Chidlow G, Allmeier H, Osborne NN. The beta-adrenoceptor antagonists metipranolol and timolol are retinal neuroprotectants: comparison with betaxolol. Exp Eye Res 2003; 76: 505-516.
57. McKinnon SJ. Glaucoma, apoptosis, and neuroprotection. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 1997; 8: 28-37.
58. Morrison JC, Moore CG, Deppmeier LM, Gold BG, Meshul CK, Johnson EC. A rat model of chronic pressure-induced optic nerve damage. Exp Eye Res 1997; 64: 85-96.
59. Garcia-Valenzuela E, Shareef S, Walsh J, Sharma SC. Programmed cell death of retinal ganglion cells during experimental glaucoma. Exp Eye Res 1995; 61: 33-44.
60. Goldblum D, Mittag T. Prospects for relevant glaucoma models with retinal ganglion cell damage in the rodent eye. Vis Res 2002; 42: 471-478.
61. Grozdanic SD, Betts DM, Sakaguchi DS, Kwon YH, Kardon RH, Sonea IM. Temporary elevation of the intraocular pressure by cauterization of vortex and episcleral veins in rats causes functional deficits in the retina and optic nerve. Exp Eye Res 2003; 77: 27-33.
62. Chauhan BC, Pan J, Archibald ML, LeVatte TL, Kelly ME, Tremblay F. Effect of intraocular pressure on optic disc topography, electroretinography, and axonal loss in a chronic pressure-induced rat model of optic nerve damage. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43 2969-2976.
63. Neufeld AH, Das S, Vora S, Gachie E, Kawai S, Manning PT et al. A prodrug of a selective inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase is neuroprotective in the rat model of glaucoma. J Glaucoma 2002; 11: 221-225.
64. Chaudhary P, Ahmed F, Sharma SC. MK801 - a neuroprotectant in rat hypertensive eyes. Brain Res 1998; 792: 154-158.
65. Morrison JC, Nylander KB, Lauer AK, Cepurna WO, Johnson E. Glaucoma drops control intraocular pressure and protect optic nerves in a rat model of glaucoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998; 39: 526-531.
66. Takamatsu J, Hirano A, Levy D, Henkind P. Experimental bilateral carotid artery occlusion: a study of the optic nerve in the rat. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1984; 10: 423-428.
67. Kobayashi M, Kuroiwa T, Shimokawa R, Okeda R, Tokoro T. Nitric oxide synthase expression in ischemic rat retinas. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2000; 44: 235-244.
68. Stevens WD, Fortin T, Pappas BA. Retinal and optic nerve degeneration after chronic carotid ligation: time course and role of light exposure. Stroke 2002; 33: 1107-1112.
69. Osborne NN, Safa R, Nash MS. Photoreceptors are preferentially affected in the rat retina following permanent occlusion of the carotid arteries. Vis Res 1999; 39: 3995-4002.
70. Yip HK, So KF. Axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells: effect of trophic factors. Prog Retin Eye Res 2000; 19: 559-575.
71. Unoki K, LaVail MM. Protection of the rat retina from ischemic injury by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, ciliary neurotrophic factor, and basic fibroblast growth factor. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1994; 35: 907-915.
72. Kurokawa T, Katai N, Shibuki H, Kuroiwa S, Kurimoto Y, Nakayama C et al. BDNF diminishes caspase-2 but not c-Jun immunoreactivity of neurons in retinal ganglion cell layer after transient ischemia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: 3006-3011.
73. Kido N, Tanihara H, Honjo M, Inatani M, Tatsuno T, Nakayama C et al. Neuroprotective effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in eyes with NMDA-induced neuronal death. Brain Res 2000; 884 59-67.
74. Marmor MF, Dalal R. Irregular retinal and RPE damage after pressure-induced ischemia in the rabbit. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1993; 34: 2570-2575.
75. Chiang SK, Lam TT. Post-treatment at 12 or 18 hours with 3-aminobenzamide ameliorates retinal ischemia-reperfusion damage. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 3210-3214.
76. Buchi ER, Suivaizdis I, Fu J. Pressure-induced retinal ischemia in rats: an experimental model for quantitative study. Ophthalmologica 1991; 203: 138-147.
77. Shareef SR, Garcia Valenzuela E, Salierno A, Walsh J, Sharma SC. Chronic ocular hypertension following episcleral venous occlusion in rats. Exp Eye Res 1995; 61: 379-382.
78. Ueda J, Sawaguchi S, Hanyu T, Yaoeda K, Fukuchi T, Abe H et al. Experimental glaucoma model in the rat induced by laser trabecular photocoagulation after an intracameral injection of India ink. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1998; 42: 337-344.
79. Mittag TW, Danias J, Pohorenec G, Yuan HM, Burakgazi E, Chalmers-Redman R et al. Retinal damage after 3 to 4 months of elevated intraocular pressure in a rat glaucoma model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 3451-3459.
80. Schori H, Kipnis J, Yoles E, WoldeMussie E, Ruiz G, Wheeler LA et al. Vaccination for protection of retinal ganglion cells against death from glutamate cytotoxicity and ocular hypertension: implications for glaucoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98: 3398-3403.
81. Osborne NN, Block F, Sontag KH. Reduction of ocular blood flow results in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression in rat retinal Muller cells. Vis Neurosci 1991; 7: 637-639.
82. Barnett NL, Osborne NN. Prolonged bilateral carotid artery occlusion induces electrophysiological and immunohistochemical changes to the rat retina without causing histological damage. Exp Eye Res 1995; 61: 83-90.
83. Martinou JC, Dubois-Dauphin M, Staple JK, Rodriguez I, Frankowski H, Missotten M et al. Overexpression of BCL-2 in transgenic mice protects neurons from naturally occurring cell death and experimental ischemia. Neuron 1994; 13: 1017-1030.
84. Mosinger JL, Price MT, Bai HY, Xiao H, Wozniak DF, Olney JW. Blockade of both NMDA and non-NMDA receptors is required for optimal protection against ischemic neuronal degeneration in the in vivo adult mammalian retina. Exp Neurol 1991; 113: 10-17.
85. Otori Y, Shimada S, Morimura H, Ishimoto I, Tohyama M, Tano Y. Expression of c-fos and c-jun mRNA following transient retinal ischemia: an approach using ligation of the retinal central artery in the rat. Surv Ophthalmol 1997; 42(Suppl 1): S96-S104.
86. Lafuente MP, Villegas Perez MP, Selles Navarro I, Mayor Torroglosa S, Miralles de Imperial J, Vidal Sanz M. Retinal ganglion cell death after acute retinal ischemia is an ongoing process whose severity and duration depends on the duration of the insult. Neuroscience 2002; 109: 157-168.
87. Osborne NN, DeSantis L, Bae JH, Ugarte M, Wood JP, Nash MS et al. Topically applied betaxolol attenuates NMDA-induced toxicity to ganglion cells and the effects of ischaemia to the retina. Exp Eye Res 1999; 69: 331-342.
88. Wood JP, DeSantis L, Chao HM, Osborne NN. Topically applied betaxolol attenuates ischaemia-induced effects to the rat retina and stimulates BDNF mRNA. Exp Eye Res 2001; 72: 79-86.
89. Goto W, Ota T, Morikawa N, Otori Y, Hara H, Kawazu K et al. Protective effects of timolol against the neuronal damage induced by glutamate and ischemia in the rat retina. Brain Res 2002; 958 10-19.
90. Taniai M, Sato E, Mizota A, Adachi-Usami E. Protective action of nipradilol against ischemia-induced retinal damage in rats. Ophthalmic Res 2002; 34: 331-337.
91. Donello JE, Padillo EU, Webster ML, Wheeler LA, Gil DW. alpha(2)-Adrenoceptor agonists inhibit vitreal glutamate and aspartate accumulation and preserve retinal function after transient ischemia. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001; 296: 216-223.
92. Lai RK, Chun T, Hasson D, Lee S, Mehrbod F, Wheeler L. Alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist protects retinal function after acute retinal ischemic injury in the rat. Vis Neurosci 2002; 19: 175-185.
93. Chao HM, Osborne NN. Topically applied clonidine protects the rat retina from ischaemia/reperfusion by stimulating alpha(2)-adrenoceptors and not by an action on imidazoline receptors. Brain Res 2001; 904: 126-136.
94. Takahashi K, Lam TT, Edward DP, Buchi ER, Tso MO. Protective effects of flunarizine on ischemic injury in the rat retina. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 862-870.
95. Toriu N, Akaike A, Yasuyoshi H, Zhang S, Kashii S, Honda Y et al. Lomerizine, a Ca2+ channel blocker, reduces glutamate-induced neurotoxicity and ischemia/reperfusion damage in rat retina. Exp Eye Res 2000; 70: 475-484.
96. Osborne NN, Wood JP, Cupido A, Melena J, Chidlow G. Topical flunarizine reduces IOP and protects the retina against ischemia-excitotoxicity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43: 1456-1464.
97. Ju WK, Kim KY, Neufeld AH. Increased activity of cyclooxygenase-2 signals early neurodegenerative events in the rat retina following transient ischemia. Exp Eye Res 2003; 77: 137-145.
98. Lagreze WA, Muller-Velten R, Feuerstein TJ. The neuroprotective properties of gabapentin-lactam. Gr Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2001; 239: 845-849.
99. Zhang C, Takahashi K, Lam TT, Tso MO. Effects of basic fibroblast growth factor in retinal ischemia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1994; 35: 3163-3168.
100. Siliprandi R, Canella R, Carmignoto G. Nerve growth factor promotes functional recovery of retinal ganglion cells after ischemia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1993; 34: 3232-3245.
101. Yoneda S, Tanihara H, Kido N, Honda Y, Goto W, Hara H et al. Interleukin-1beta mediates ischemic injury in the rat retina. Exp Eye Res 2001; 73: 661-667.
102. Osborne NN, Wood JP, Melena J, Chao HM, Nash MS, Bron AJ et al. 5-Hydroxytryptamine1A agonists: potential use in glaucoma. Evidence from animal studies. Eye 2000; 14: 454-463.
103. Kim SY, Kwak JS, Shin JP, Lee SH. The protection of the retina from ischemic injury by the free radical scavenger EGb 761 and zinc in the cat retina. Ophthalmologica 1998; 212: 268-274.
104. Kuriyama H, Waki M, Nakagawa M, Tsuda M. Involvement of oxygen free radicals in experimental retinal ischemia and the selective vulnerability of retinal damage. Ophthalmic Res 2001; 33: 196-202.
105. Adachi K, Fujita Y, Morizane C, Akaike A, Ueda M, Satoh M et al. Inhibition of NMDA receptors and nitric oxide synthase reduces ischemic injury of the retina. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 350: 53-57.
106. Ju WK, Kim KY, Park SJ, Park DK, Park CB, Oh SJ et al. Nitric oxide is involved in sustained and delayed cell death of rat retina following transient ischemia. Brain Res 2000; 881: 231-236.
107. Neufeld AH, Kawai S, Das S, Vora S, Gachie E, Connor JR et al. Loss of retinal ganglion cells following retinal ischemia: the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Exp Eye Res 2002; 75 521-528.
108. Joo CK, Choi JS, Ko HW, Park KY, Sohn S, Chun MH et al. Necrosis and apoptosis after retinal ischemia: involvement of NMDA-mediated excitotoxicity and p53. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: 713-720.
109. Kapin MA, Doshi R, Scatton B, DeSantis LM, Chandler ML. Neuroprotective effects of eliprodil in retinal excitotoxicity and ischemia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: 1177-1182.
110. Nash MS, Wood JP, Melena J, Osborne NN. Flupirtine ameliorates ischaemic-like death of rat retinal ganglion cells by preventing calcium influx. Brain Res 2000; 856: 236-239.
111. Osborne NN. Memantine reduces alterations to the mammalian retina, in situ, induced by ischemia. Vis Neurosci 1999; 16: 45-52.
112. Lam TT, Siew E, Chu R, Tso MO. Ameliorative effect of MK-801 on retinal ischemia. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 1997; 13: 129-137.
113. Seo SY, Yun BS, Ryoo IJ, Choi JS, Joo CK, Chang SY et al. Complestatin is a noncompetitive peptide antagonist of N methyl-D-aspartate and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate receptors: secure blockade of ischemic neuronal death. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001; 299: 377-384.
114. Yoneda S, Tanaka E, Goto W, Ota T, Hara H. Topiramate reduces excitotoxic and ischemic injury in the rat retina. Brain Res 2003; 967: 257-266.
115. Yoles E, Wheeler LA, Schwartz M. Alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonists are neuroprotective in a rat model of optic nerve degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: 65-73.
116. Ahmed FA, Hegazy K, Chaudhary P, Sharma SC. Neuroprotective effect of alpha(2) agonist (brimonidine) on adult rat retinal ganglion cells after increased intraocular pressure. Brain Res 2001; 913 133-139.
117. Mey J, Thanos S. Intravitreal injections of neurotrophic factors support the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats in vivo. Brain Res 1993; 602: 304-317.
118. Peinado-Ramon P, Salvador M, Villegas-Perez MP, Vidal-Sanz M. Effects of axotomy and intraocular administration of NT-4, NT-3, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on the survival of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. A quantitative in vivo study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1996; 37: 489-500.
119. Mansour-Robaey S, Clarke DB, Wang YC, Bray GM, Aguayo AJ. Effects of ocular injury and administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on survival and regrowth of axotomized retinal ganglion cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 1632-1636.
120. Weise J, Isenmann S, Klocker N, Kugler S, Hirsch S, Gravel C et al. Adenovirus-mediated expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) rescues axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells but does not support axonal regeneration in vivo. Neurobiol Dis 2000; 7: 212-223.
121. van Adel BA, Kostic C, Deglon N, Ball AK, Arsenijevic Y. Delivery of ciliary neurotrophic factor via lentiviral-mediated transfer protects axotomized retinal ganglion cells for an extended period of time. Hum Gene Ther 2003; 14: 103-115.
122. Honjo M, Tanihara H, Kido N, Inatani M, Okazaki K, Honda Y. Expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor activated by retinal Muller cells in eyes with NMDA- and kainic acid-induced neuronal death. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 552-560.
123. Sievers J, Hausmann B, Unsicker K, Berry M. Fibroblast growth factors promote the survival of adult rat retinal ganglion cells after transection of the optic nerve. Neurosci Lett 1987; 76: 157-162.
124. Kugler S, Klocker N, Kermer P, Isenmann S, Bahr M. Transduction of axotomized retinal ganglion cells by adenoviral vector administration at the optic nerve stump: an in vivo model system for the inhibition of neuronal apoptotic cell death. Gene Ther 1999; 6: 1759-1767.
125. Kwong JM, Lam TT. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) induced apoptosis in adult rabbit retinas. Exp Eye Res 2000; 71: 437-444.
126. Katai N, Yoshimura N. Apoptotic retinal neuronal death by ischemia-reperfusion is executed by two distinct caspase family proteases. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40: 2697-2705.
127. Kermer P, Klocker N, Bahr M. Long-term effect of inhibition of ced 3-like caspases on the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in vivo. Exp Neurol 1999; 158: 202-205.
128. Chaudhary P, Ahmed F, Quebada. P, Sharma SC. Caspase inhibitors block the retinal ganglion cell death following optic nerve transection. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1999; 67: 36-45.
129. WoldeMussie E, Yoles E, Schwartz M, Ruiz G, Wheeler LA. Neuroprotective effect of memantine in different retinal injury models in rats. J Glaucoma 2002; 11: 474-480.