Fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals for addressing micronutrient malnutrition

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2019, Issue 10, 2019, Pages

  Peña Rosas, Juan Pablo ^a   Mithra, Prasanna ^b   Unnikrishnan, Bhaskaran ^b   Kumar, Nithin ^b   De Regil, Luz Maria ^c   Sreekumaran Nair, N ^d   Garcia Casal, Maria N ^a   Solon, Juan Antonio ^e  

^a WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

^b KASTURBA MEDICAL COLLEGE   (India)

^c Technical Services   (Canada)

^d GOVERNMENT OF INDIA   (India)

^e Nutrition Center of the Philippines   (Philippines)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CAROTENOID; FOLIC ACID; HEMOGLOBIN; IRON; MINERAL; RETINOL; VITAMIN; ZINC; TRACE ELEMENT;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ANEMIA; ANTHROPOMETRY; BANGLADESH; BODY HEIGHT; BRAZIL; BURUNDI; CAMBODIA; CHILD NUTRITION; CONFIDENCE INTERVAL; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; COOKING; DATA ANALYSIS; DATA BASE; DATA EXTRACTION; DIARRHEA; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; ENDEMIC DISEASE; FOLIC ACID BLOOD LEVEL; FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY; FORTIFIED FOOD; FUNDING; HEMOGLOBIN BLOOD LEVEL; HOOKWORM INFECTION; HUMAN; INDIA; INDONESIA; INFECTION RISK; INFORMATION PROCESSING; IRON DEFICIENCY; IRON OVERLOAD; MALARIA; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MEXICO; MINERAL SUPPLEMENTATION; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; OCCUPATION; PHILIPPINES; PREGNANT WOMAN; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RELIGION; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; RETINOL DEFICIENCY; REVIEW; RICE; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL CAPITAL; SOCIAL STATUS; STATISTICAL BIAS; STUNTING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THAILAND; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION; ZINC BLOOD LEVEL; ZINC DEFICIENCY; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CHILD; FEMALE; IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA; MALE; MALNUTRITION; META ANALYSIS; ORYZA; PREGNANCY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; VITAMIN DEFICIENCY; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANEMIA, IRON-DEFICIENCY; AVITAMINOSIS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; FEMALE; FOOD, FORTIFIED; HUMANS; MALE; MALNUTRITION; MICRONUTRIENTS; MINERALS; ORYZA; PREGNANCY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; VITAMINS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 85074133475     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009902.pub2     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Angeles-Agdeppa 2008 {published data only} Angeles-Agdeppa I, Capanzana MV, Barba CV, Florentino RF, Takanashi K. Efficacy of iron-fortified rice in reducing anemia among schoolchildren in the Philippines. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2008;78(2):74-86.
2. Ara G, Khanam M, Rahman AS, Islam Z, Farhad S, Sanin KI, et al. Effectiveness of micronutrient-fortified rice consumption on anaemia and zinc status among vulnerable women in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE 2019;14(1):e0210501.
3. Della Lucia 2016 {published data only} Della Lucia CM, Rodrigues KC, Rodrigues VC, Santos LL, Cardoso LM, Martino HS, et al. Diet quality and adequacy of nutrients in preschool children: should rice fortified with micronutrients be Included in school meals?. Nutrients 2016;8(5):1-16.
4. * Della Lucia CM, Santos LL, da Silva BP, Anuncuiacao PC, Goncalvez Alfenas R, Castro Franceschini S, et al. Impact of rice fortified with iron, zinc, thiamine and folic acid on laboratory measurements of nutritional status of preschool children [Impacto do arroz fortificado com ferro, zinco, tiamina e ácido fólico sobre as medidas laboratoriais do estado nutricional de crianças pré-escolares]. Ciencia & Saude Coletiva 2016;22(2):583-92.
5. Gershoff 1977 {published data only} * Gershoff SN, McGandy RB, Suttapreyasri D, Promkutkao C, Nondasuta A, Pisolyabutra U, et al. Nutrition studies in Thailand. II. Effects of fortification of rice with lysine, threonine, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin A, and iron on preschool children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1977;30(7):1185-95.
6. Gershoff SN, McGandy RB, SuttaPreyasri D, Nondasuta A, Pisolyabutra U, Tantiwongse P. Amino acid fortification of rice studies in Thailand. 1. background and baseline data. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1975;28(2):170-82.
7. Hardinsyah 2016 {published data only} Hardinsyah I, Briawan D, Budianto S, Hustina P, Ghifari N, Suhandono S. Production and clinical impact study of micronutrients fortified rice for teen girls in Islamic boarding school in Medan, Indonesia. Final report. https://snrd-asia.org/download/better_rice:initiative_asia_bria/CLINICAL-IMPACT-STUDY-OF-MICRONUTRIENTS-FORTIFIED-RICE-IN-INDONESIA.pdf (accessed 9 October 2019). West Java: Food and Nutrition Society of Indonesia (Perhizi Pangan Indonesia), 2016.
8. Hotz 2008 {published data only} Hotz C, Porcayo M, Onofre G, Garcia-Guerra A, Elliott T, Jankowski S, et al. Efficacy of iron-fortified Ultra Rice in improving the iron status of women in Mexico. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2008;29(2):140-9.
9. Hussain SZ, Singh B, Rather AH. Efficacy of micronutrient fortified extruded rice in improving the iron and vitamin A status in Indian schoolchildren. International Journal of Agriculture and Food Science Technology 2014;5(3):227-38.
10. Losso 2017 {published data only} Greenway F. Pilot study of the effect of iron fortified rice in iron deficient anemic women. clinicaltrials.gov 2012; Vol. (accessed 19 July 2017).
11. Losso JN, Karki N, Muyonga J, Wu Y, Fusilier K, Jacob G, et al. Iron retention in iron-fortified rice and use of iron-fortified rice to treat women with iron deficiency: a pilot study. BBA Clinical 2017;8:78-83.
12. Moretti D, Lee TC, Zimmermann MB, Nuessli J, Hurrell RF. Development and evaluation of iron-fortified extruded rice grains. Journal of Food Science 2005;70(5):S330–S336.
13. * Moretti D, Zimmermann MB, Muthayya S, Thankachan P, Lee TC, Kurpad AV, et al. Extruded rice fortified with micronized ground ferric pyrophosphate reduces iron deficiency in Indian schoolchildren: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;84(4):822-9.
14. Zimmermann MB, Muthayya S, Moretti D, Kurpad A, Hurrell RF. Iron fortification reduces blood lead levels in children in Bangalore, India. Pediatrics 2006;117(6):2014-21.
15. Nogueira Arcanjo FP, Santos PR, Segall S. Ferric pyrophosphate fortified rice given once weekly does not increase hemoglobin levels in preschoolers. Journal of Rice Research 2013;1(2):1-6.
16. Parker ME, Mosites E, Reider K, Ndayishimiye N, Waring M, et al. A blinded, cluster-randomized, placebo-controlled school feeding trial in Burundi using rice fortified with iron, zinc, thiamine, and folic acid. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2015;36(4):481-92.
17. De Gier B, Campos Ponce M, Perignon M, Fiorentino M, Khov K, Chamnan C, et al. Micronutrient-fortified rice can increase hookworm infection risk: a cluster randomized trial. PLoS One 2016;11(1):e0145351.
18. Fiorentino M, Perignon M, Kuong K, De Groot R, Parker M, Burja K, et al. Effect of multi-micronutrient-fortified rice on cognitive performance depends on premix composition and cognitive function tested: results of an effectiveness study in Cambodian schoolchildren. Public Health Nutrition 2018;21(4):816-27. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980017002774]
19. Kuong K, Fiorentino M, Perignon M, Chamnan C, Parker M, Burja K, et al. What is the right indicator to evaluate impact of interventions? Examples from a rice fortification trial in Cambodia. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety 2015; Vol. 5, issue 5:760-61.
20. Perignon M, Fiorentino M, Kuong K, Burja K, Parker M, Sisokhom S, et al. Stunting, poor iron status and parasite infection are significant risk factors for lower cognitive performance in Cambodian school-aged children. PLoS One 2014;9(11):e112605.
21. * Perignon M, Fiorentino M, Kuong K, Dijkhuizen MA, Burja K, Parker M, et al. Impact of multi-micronutrient fortified rice on hemoglobin, iron and vitamin A status of Cambodian schoolchildren: a double-blind cluster-randomized controlled trial. Nutrients 2016;8(1):E29.
22. Pinkaew S, Winichagoon P, Hurrell RF, Wegmuller R. Extruded rice grains fortified with zinc, iron, and vitamin A increase zinc status of Thai school children when incorporated into a school lunch program. Journal of Nutrition 2013;143(3):362-8.
23. Pinkaew 2014 {published data only} * Pinkaew S, Wegmuller R, Wasantwisut E, Winichagoon P, Hurrell RF, Tanumihardjo SA. Triple-fortified rice containing vitamin A reduced marginal vitamin A deficiency and increased vitamin A liver stores in school-aged Thai children. Journal of Nutrition 2014;144(4):519-24.
24. Radhika MS, Nair KM, Kumar RH, Rao MV, Ravinder P, Reddy CG, et al. Micronized ferric pyrophosphate supplied through extruded rice kernels improves body iron stores in children: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled midday meal feeding trial in Indian schoolchildren. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;94(5):1202-10.
25. Salcedo J Jr, Bamba MD, Carrasco EO, Chan GS, Concepcion I, Jose FR, et al. Artificial enrichment of white rice as a solution to endemic beriberi: report of field trials in Bataan, Philippines. Journal of Nutrition 1950;42(4):501-23.
26. Salcedo J Jr, Concepcion I. Studies on the thiamine content of rice, vegetables, and other foods in Bataan Province. Acta Medica Philippina 1949;5(4):1-19.
27. Salcedo J Jr, Pedroche A, Panganiban EC, DeLeon JF. Artificial enrichment of white rice as a solution to endemic beriberi; preliminary report of field trials. Journal of Nutrition 1949;38(4):443-51.
28. Thankachan P, Rah JH, Thomas T, Selvam S, Amalrajan V, Srinivasan K, et al. Multiple micronutrient-fortified rice affects physical performance and plasma vitamin B-12 and homocysteine concentrations of Indian school children. Journal of Nutrition 2012; Vol. 142, issue 5:846-52.
29. Ando S, Sekine S, Murosaki S. Folate deficiency among aged patients and its amelioration through consumption of folic acidfortified rice. 2012;13(3):123-37.
30. Angeles-Agdeppa I, Saises M, Capanzana M, Juneja LR, Sakaguchi N. Pilot-scale commercialization of iron-fortified rice: effects on anemia status. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2011;32(1):3-12.
31. Capanzana MV, Angeles-Agdeppa IT. Social marketing efforts for the promotion of iron-fortified rice: an ongoing study in Bataan. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. Basel (Switzerland): Karger International, 2009; Vol. 55:167-8. [https://doi.org/10.1159/000248282]
32. Arsenault 2010 {published data only} * Arsenault JE, Yakes EA, Hossain MB, Islam MM, Ahmed T, Hotz C, et al. The current high prevalence of dietary zinc inadequacy among children and women in rural Bangladesh could be substantially ameliorated by zinc biofortification of rice. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140(9):1683-90.
33. Arsenault JE, Yakes EA, Lewis B, Islam MM, Hossain MB, Ahmed T, et al. Potential impact of zinc-biofortified rice on zinc intakes of young Bangladeshi children. FASEB Journal (Meeting Abstract Supplement) 334.4 2010; Vol. 24.
34. Bagni UV, Baião MR, Santos MM, Luiz RR, Veiga GV. Effect of weekly rice fortification with iron on anemia prevalence and hemoglobin concentration among children attending public daycare centers in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [Efeito da fortificaçao semanal do arroz com ferro quelato sobre a frequencia de anemia e concentraçao de hemoglobina em crianças de creches municipais do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil]. Cadernos De Saude Publica 2009;25(2):291-302.
35. Barboza 2011 {published data only} Barboza Argüello MP, Umaña Solís LM. Impact of the fortification of food with folic acid on neural tube defects in Costa Rica [Impacto de la fortificación de alimentos con ácido fólico en los defectos del tubo neural en Costa Rica]. Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica 2011;30(1):1-6.
36. Beinner MA, Soares AD, Barros AL, Monteiro MA. Sensory evaluation of rice fortified with iron. Ciencia e Tecnologia De Alimentos 2010;30(2):516-9.
37. * Beinner MA, Velasquez-Meléndez G, Pessoa MC, Greiner T. Iron-fortified rice is as efficacious as supplemental iron drops in infants and young children. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140(1):49-53.
38. Castro LC, Brunoro CN, Pinheiro SH, Fortes LC, de Castro FS. Improvement the nutritional status of pre-school children following intervention with a supplement containing iron, zinc, copper, vitamin A, vitamin C and prebiotic. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva 2017;22(2):359-68.
39. Finkelstein 2013 {published data only} Filkenstein J, Mehta S, Haas JD. Iron fortification interventions: synthesis of results from three trials in Asia. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2013;63(Suppl 1):1-1960.
40. Florentino RF, Pedro MR. Update on rice fortification in the Philippines. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 1998;19(2):149-53.
41. Graham 2007 {published data only} * Graham JM, Haskell MJ, Pandey P, Shrestha RK, Brown KH. Supplementation with iron and riboflavin enhances dark adaptation response to vitamin A--fortified rice in iron-deficient, pregnant, nightblind Nepali women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(5):1375-84.
42. Graham JM, Pandey P, Haskell MJ, Shrestha RK, Peerson JM, Brown KH, et al. Riboflavin plus iron supplementation did not enhance improvement of dark adaptation or retinol in night blind pregnant Nepali women receiving vitamin A-fortified Ultra-Rice (TM). FASEB Journal 2003;17(5):A1101-2.
43. Haskell MJ, Pandey P, Graham JM, Peerson JM, Shresthra RK, Brown KH. Response of plasma retinol and carotenoid concentrations of nightblind, pregnant Nepalese women to daily supplementation with locally available vitamin A-rich foods or vitamin A-fortified Ultra-Rice (TM). FASEB Journal 2002;16(4):A626.
44. Haskell MJ, Pandey P, Graham JM, Peerson JM, Shrestha RK, Brown KH. Recovery from impaired dark adaptation in nightblind pregnant Nepali women who receive small daily doses of vitamin A as amaranth leaves, carrots, goat liver, vitamin A-fortified rice, or retinyl palmitate. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(2):461-71.
45. Huo 2014 {published data only} Huo J, Sun J, Huang J, Wang J, Li W, Wang B. School food fortification improves nutrition status of students from poor migrant. Journal of Food and Nutritional Disorders 2014;3:2.
46. Hyun T, Kim NJ, Kim JH, Jang YA, Kim K, Lee Y. The effects of folic acidfortified food and nutrition education on folate nutritional status and behavioral capability in Korean women of childbearing age. FASEB Journal 2015;29(1 Supplement):LB331.
47. Kagawa Y, Hiraoka M, Kageyama M, Kontai Y, Yurimoto M, Nishijima C, et al. Medical cost savings in Sakado City and worldwide achieved by preventing disease by folic acid fortification. Congenital Anomalies 2017; Vol. 57, issue 5:157-65.
48. Ma J, Sun Q, Liu J, Hu Y, Liu S, Zhang J, et al. The effect of iron fortification on iron (Fe) status and inflammation: a randomized controlled trial. Plos One 2016;11(12):e0167458.
49. Nogueira Arcanjo 2012 {published and unpublished data} * Nogueira Arcanjo FP, Santos PR, Costa Arcanjo CP, Silverio Amancio OM, Pellegrini Braga JA. Use of iron-fortified rice reduces anemia in infants. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 2012;58(6):475-80.
50. Nogueira Arcanjo FP, Santos PR, Madeiro Leite AJ, Bastos Mota FS, Duarte Segall S. Rice fortified with iron given weekly increases hemoglobin levels and reduces anemia in infants: a community intervention trial. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin-und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal International de Vitaminologie et de Nutrition 2013;83(1):59-66.
51. Pham VP, Nguyen VH, Salvignol B, Treche S, Wieringa FT, Dijkhuizen MA, et al. A six-month intervention with two different types of micronutrient-fortified complementary foods had distinct short-and long-term effects on linear and ponderal growth of Vietnamese infants. Journal of Nutrition 2012;142(9):1735-40.
52. Pham Van T, Le Thi H, Nakanishi Y. Efficacy of iron fortified rice in Vietnam. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2013;63(suppl 1):1040.
53. Skau 2015 {published data only} Skau JK, Touch B, Chhoun C, Chea M, Unni US, Makurat J, et al. Effects of animal source food and micronutrient fortification in complementary food products on body composition, iron status, and linear growth: a randomized trial in Cambodia. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2015;101(4):742-51.
54. Sridevi D, Radhaisri S. Impact of micronutrient fortified food supplement on nutritional profile among ginning women workers. International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy 2013;4(4):526-9.
55. VitoloI MR, Nogueira de Campo A, Kondo III MR, Giuliano Y, Ferreira N, Lopez FA. Effect of the use of iron-enriched cereal on the serum hemoglobin levels and anthropometric values of preschool children [Impacto do uso de cereal adicionado de ferro sobre os níveis de hemoglobina e a antropometria de pré-escolares]. Revista de Nutrição, Campinas 1998;11(2):163-71.
56. Walter 1993 {published data only} Walter T, Dallman PR, Pizarro F, Velozo L, Pena G, Bartholmey SJ, et al. Effectiveness of iron-fortified infant cereal in prevention of iron-deficiency anemia. Pediatrics 1993;91(5):976-82.
57. NCT02714075 {published data only} NCT02714075. Comparison of iron absorption from extruded FePP-fortified rice containing zinc, citric acid/trisodium citrate and EDTA (MM_Rice). clinicaltrials.gov 2016 (accessed 09 October 2019).
58. NCT03056625. Efficacy of vitamin A fortified rice in lactating Thai women (EVAL). clinicaltrials.gov September 2017 (accessed 09 October 2019).
59. A2Z Project. Rice fortification in developing countries: a critical review of the technical and economic feasibility. https://www.spring-nutrition.org/sites/default/files/a2z_materials/508-food-rice-fortification-report-with-annexes-final.pdf (accessed 10 October 2019). Washington DC: Academy for Educational Development, 2008.
60. Adams G, Gulliford MC, Ukoumunne OC, Eldridge S, Chinn S, Campbell MJ. Patterns of intra-cluster correlation from primary care research to inform study design and analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2004;57:785-94.
61. Alderman H, Horton S. The economics of addressing nutritional anemia. In: Kraemer K, Zimmermann MB editor(s). Nutritional Anemia. Basel: Sight and Life Press, 2007:19-35.
62. American Rice Inc 2004 American Rice Inc. Nutritional Information. www.amrice.com/6-4.cfm2004.
63. Andersson 2012 Andersson M, Karumbunathan V, Zimmermann MB. Global iodine status in 2011 and trends over the past decade. Journal of Nutrition 2012;142(4):744-50.
64. Bailey LB, Stover PJ, McNulty H, Fenech MF, Gregory JF 3rd, Mills JL, et al. Biomarkers of nutrition for development-folate review. Journal of Nutrition 2015;145(7):1636S-1680S.
65. Balshem H, Helfand M, Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Brozek J, et al. GRADE guidelines: Rating the quality of evidence. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2011;64(4):401-6.
66. Baltussen R, Knai C, Sharan M. Iron fortification and iron supplementation are cost-effective interventions to reduce iron deficiency in four subregions of the world. Journal of Nutrition 2004;134(10):2678-84.
67. Bandeira F, Griz L, Dreyer P, Eufrazino C, Bandeira C, Freese E. Vitamin D deficiency: a global perspective [Deficiência de vitamina D: uma perspectiva global]. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia 2006;50(4):640-6.
68. Berry RJ, Bailey L, Mulinare J, Bower C. Folic acid working group. Fortification of flour with folic acid. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2010;31(Suppl 1):22-35.
69. Best C, Neufingerl N, Del Rosso JM, Transler C, Van den Briel T, Osendarp S. Can multi-micronutrient food fortification improve the micronutrient status, growth, health, and cognition of schoolchildren? A systematic review. Nutrition Reviews 2011;69(4):186–204.
70. Bhaskaram P. Micronutrient malnutrition, infection, and immunity: an overview. Nutrition Reviews 2002;60(5 Pt 2):4-45.
71. Black RE. Micronutrient deficiency--an underlying cause of morbidity and mortality. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2003;81(2):79.
72. Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, et al. Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group. Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 2008;371(9608):243-60.
73. Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JP, Rothstein HR. Introduction to Meta-Analysis (Statistics in Practice). Chichester (UK): John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
74. Brown KH, Wessells KR, Hess SY. Zinc bioavailability from zinc-fortified foods. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 2007;77:174-81.
75. Carter RC, Jacobson JL, Burden MJ, Armony-Sivan R, Dodge NC, Angelilli ML, et al. Iron deficiency anemia and cognitive function in infancy. Pediatrics 2010;126(2):e427-34.
76. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Criteria for anemia in children and childbearing-age women.. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1989; Vol. 38, issue-:400-04.
77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in wheat-flour fortification with folic acid and iron. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2008;57(01):8-10.
78. Centeno Tablante E, Pachón H, Guetterman HM, Finkelstein JL. Fortification of wheat and maize flour with folic acid for population health outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019, Issue 7. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD012150.pub2]
79. Chen H, Siebenmorgen T, Griffin K. Quality characteristics of long-grain rice milled in two commercial systems. Cereal Chemistry 1998;75(4):560-5.
80. Cochrane PHG 2010 Cochrane Public Health Group. Guide for developing a Cochrane Protocol, Version 2. The Cochrane Collaboration. Public Health Group, 2010.
81. Codex Alimentarius 1994 Codex Alimentarius. In: FAO/WHO editor(s). Codex general principles for the addition of essential nutrients to foods. CAC/GL 09-1987 (as amended 1989, 1991). Second Edition. Vol. 4, Rome: Joint FAO/WHO Food Stardards Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1994.
82. Darnton-Hill I, Webb P, Harvey PW, Hunt JM, Dalmiya N, Chopra M, et al. Micronutrient deficiencies and gender: social and economic costs. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005;81(5):1198S-1205S.
83. Das JK, Salam RA, Kumar R, Bhutta ZA. Micronutrient fortification of food and its impact on woman and child health: a systematic review. Systematic Reviews 2013;2:67.
84. De Pee S, Fabrizio C, Rosenzweig J. Overview of evidence and recommendations for effective large-scale rice fortification. In: Laura Irizarry, Marc-André Prost, Diana Murillo editor(s). Scaling up rice fortification in Latin America and the Caribbean (sightandlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Scaling-Up-Rice-Fortification-WFP-Rice-Fortification-ENG.pdf, accessed 10 October 2019). Basel: Sight and Life and World Food Programme, 2017:143-49.
85. De-Regil LM, Peña-Rosas JP, Fernández-Gaxiola AC, Rayco-Solon P. Effects and safety of periconceptional oral folate supplementation for preventing birth defects. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007950.pub3]
86. Deeks JJ, Higgins JP, Altman DG (editors) on behalf of the Cochrane Statistical Methods Group. Chapter 9: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Higgins JPT, Churchill R, Chandler J, Cumpston MS (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 5.2.0 (updated June 2017), Cochrane, 2017. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.
87. Dexter PB. Rice fortification for developing countries. www.mostproject.org/PDF/rice4.pdf. Fayetteville, AR: OMNI/USAID, (accessed 7 May 2011).
88. DSM Nutritional Products Ltd/Buhler AG. Nutririce process: a breakthrough in rice fortification. www.buhlergroup.com/global/downloads/NutriRice:Process_EN.pdf 2010:1-8.
89. European Food Safety Authority. Folic acid: an update on scientific developments. www.efsa.europa.eu/en/home/publication/efsafolicacid.pdf. Parma: European Food Safety Authority, 2009.
90. Cochrane Effective Practice, Organisation of Care (EPOC). EPOC Resources for review authors, 2017. Available from epoc.cochrane.org/epoc-resources-review-authors.
91. Food, Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO Statistical Yearbook. World Food and Agriculture. www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2490e/i2490e00.htm. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012.
92. FAO. Food Outlook June 2016. Biannual Report on Global Food Markets. Food Outlook (accessed October 2016).
93. FAO Statistics Division. FAOSTAT Database. www.fao.org (accessed October 2016).
94. FDA 2001 Code of Federal Regulations. 137.350 Enriched rice. Title 21--Food and Drugs. Chapter 1--Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services. Part 137 cereals flours and related products. Vol. (4-1-01 Edition), Washington DC: United States Government, 2001.
95. Flores H, Guerra NB, Cavalcanti A, Campos F, Azevedo M, Silva M. Bioavailability of vitamin A in a synthetic rice premix. Journal of Food Science 1994;59(2):371-2.
96. GAIN 2010 Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition. RiFoRG. Rice Fortification Frequently Asked Questions. www.gainhealth.org/riforg/sites/default/files/RiFoRG_FAQs_Jan%202011.pdf 2010.
97. Garcia-Casal MN, Peña-Rosas JP, De-Regil LM, Gwirtz JA, Pasricha SR. Fortification of maize flour with iron for controlling anaemia and iron deficiency in populations. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010187.pub2]
98. Garcia-Casal MN, Mowson R, Rogers L, Grajeda R, Consultation working groups. Risk of excessive intake of vitamins and minerals delivered through public health interventions: objectives, results, conclusions of the meeting, and the way forward. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2019;1446(1):5-20.
99. Gera T, Sachdev HS, Boy E. Effect of iron-fortified foods on hematologic and biological outcomes: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2012;96(2):309-24.
100. Gibson RS, Ferguson EL. Nutrition intervention strategies to combat zinc deficiency in developing countries. Nutrition Research Reviews 1998;11(1):115-31.
101. Gordeuk VR, Bacon BR, Brittenham GM. Iron overload: causes and consequences. Annual Review of Nutrition 1987;7(1):485-508.
102. GRADEpro GDT 2015 [Computer program] McMaster University. GRADEpro GDT:GRADEpro Guideline Development Tool. McMaster University, 2015 (developed by Evidence Prime, Inc).
103. Graham RD, Welch RM, Bouis HE. Addressing micronutrient malnutrition through enhancing the nutritional quality of staple foods: principles, perspectives and knowledge gaps. Advances in Agronomy 2001;70:77-142.
104. Gulliford MC, Ukoumunne OC, Chinn S. Components of variance and intra class correlations for the design of community-based surveys and intervention studies: data from the health survey for England. American Journal of Epidemiology 1999;149(9):876-83.
105. Haas 1996 Haas JD, Murdoch S, Rivera J, Martorell R. Early nutrition and later physical work capacity. Nutrition Reviews 1996;54(2 Pt 2):S41-8.
106. Hariyadi P. Beyond Food Security. www.worldfoodscience.org/cms/?pid=1004751 2011.
107. Hess SY, Lönnerdal B, Hotz C, Rivera JA, Brown KH. Recent advances in knowledge of zinc nutrition and human health. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2009;30 Suppl(1):5-11.
108. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 2003;327:557-60.
109. Higgins JP, Deeks JJ, Altman DG (editors). Chapter 16: Special topics in statistics. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.handbook.cochrane.org.
110. Higgins JPT, Savović J, Page MJ, Elbers RG, Sterne JAC. Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in a randomized trial.. In: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.0 (updated July 2019). Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook.. Cochrane, 2019.
111. Hijar G, Aramburu A, Hurtado Y, Suarez V. Fortification of rice to correct micronutrient deficiencies in children 6 to 59 months old [Fortificación del arroz para corregir la deficiencia de micronutrientes en niños de 6 a 59 meses de edad]. Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica 2015;37(1):52-8.
112. Howson CP, Kennedy ET, Horwitz A, editors. Prevention of micronutrient deficiencies: tools for policy makers and public health workers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998.
113. Hu EA, Pan A, Malik V, Sun Q. White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis and systematic review. BMJ 2012;344(e1454):1-9.
114. Huong TL, Brouwer ID, Burema J, Nguyen KC, Kok FJ. Efficacy of iron fortification compared to iron supplementation among Vietnamese schoolchildren. Nutrition Journal 2006;5(32):1-8.
115. Hurrell RF, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;91 Suppl:1461–7.
116. Bale JR, Stoll BJ, Lucas AO, editors. Reducing Birth Defects: Meeting the Challenge in the Developing World. Washington: National Academies Press, 2003.
117. IRRI 2010 International Rice Research Institute. IRRI World Rice Statistics. beta.irri.org/solutions/index.php? option=com_content&task=view&id=250 (accessed 29 June 2011).
118. Juliano BO. Rice in Human Nutrition. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1993.
119. Khanh Van T, Burja K, Thuy Nga T, Kong K, Berger J, Gardner M, et al. Organoleptic qualities and acceptability of fortified rice in two Southeast Asian countries. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2014;1324:48-54.
120. Kim EY, Pai TK, Han O. Effect of bioactive dietary polyphenols on zinc transport across the intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayers. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 2011;59(8):3606-12.
121. Klemm RD, West KP Jr, Palmer AC, Johnson Q, Randall P, Ranum P, et al. Vitamin A fortification of wheat flour: considerations and current recommendations. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2010;31 Suppl(1):47-61.
122. Kyritsia A, Tziaa C, Karathanos VT. Vitamin fortified rice grain using spraying and soaking methods. Food Science and Technology 2011;44(1):312-20.
123. Langendam MW, Akl EA, Dahm P, Glasziou P, Guyatt G, Schünemann HJ. Assessing and presenting summaries of evidence in Cochrane Reviews. Systematic Reviews 2013;2:81.
124. Leon Guerrero RT, Gebhardt, SE, Holden J, Kretsch MJ, Todd K, Novotny R, et al. White rice sold in Hawaii, Guam, and Saipan often lacks nutrient enrichment. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2009;109(10):1738–43.
125. Lozoff B, Georgieff MK. Iron deficiency and brain development. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology 2006;13(3):158-65.
126. Mason JB, Dickstein A, Jacque PF, Haggarty P, Selhub J, Dallal G, et al. A temporal association between folic acid fortification and an increase in colorectal cancer rates may be illuminating important biological principles: a hypothesis. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 2007;16:1325-9.
127. MECIR 2018 Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR). methods.cochrane.org/sites/default/files/public/uploads/mecir_printed_booklet_final_v1.02.pdf January 2018.
128. MIcronutrient Initiative/UNICEF 2004 Micronutrient Initiative, UNICEF. Vitamin and mineral deficiency: a global progress report. https://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf, accessed 10 October 2019. Ottawa: Micronutrient Intiative, 2004; Vol.-, issue-:-. [https://www.unicef.org/media/files/vmd.pdf]
129. Moretti 2006a Moretti D, Zimmermann MB, Muthayya S, Thankachan P, Lee TC, Kurpad AV, et al. Extruded rice fortified with micronized ground ferric pyrophosphate reduces iron deficiency in Indian schoolchildren: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;84(4):822-9.
130. Munns CF, Shaw N, Kiely M, Specker BL, Thacher TD, Ozono K, et al. Global consensus recommendations on prevention and management of nutritional rickets [Global Consensus Recommendations on Prevention and Management of Nutritional Rickets.]. Hormone Research in Paediatrics 2016;85(2):83–106.
131. Muthayya S, Sugimoto JD, Montgomery S, Maberly GF. An overview of global rice production, supply, trade, and consumption. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 2014;1324:7-14.
132. Muthunayagam NP, Rohrer JE, Wright SE. Correlation of iron and colon adenomas. Gastroenterologie Clinique et Biologique 2009;33(4):435-40.
133. Oakley Jr GP, Bell KN, Weber MB. Recommendations for accelerating global action to prevent folic acid–preventable birth defects and other folate deficiency diseases: meeting of experts on preventing folic acid–preventable neural tube defects. Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology 2004;70(11):835-7.
134. Olney DK, Rawat R, Ruel MT. Identifying potential programs and platforms to deliver multiple micronutrient interventions. Journal of Nutrition 2012;142(1):178S-85S.
135. Palacios C, Gonzalez L. Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem?. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2014;144(Pt A):138-45.
136. Penniston KL, Tanumihardjo SA. Vitamin A in dietary supplements and fortified foods: too much of a good thing?. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2003;103(9):1185-7
137. Peña-Rosas JP, De-Regil LM, Garcia-Casal MN, Dowswell T. Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 7. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004736.pub5]
138. Piccoli NB, Grede N, de Pee S, Singhkumarwong A, Roks E, Moench-Pfanner R, et al. Rice fortification: its potential for improving micronutrient intake and steps required for implementation at scale. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2012;33(4 Suppl):S360-72.
139. Prättälä RS, Puska P. Social determinants of health behaviours and social change. European Journal of Public Health 2012;22(2):166.
140. Rastogi R, Mathers CD. Global burden of iron deficiency anaemia in the year 2000. Global Burden of Diseases 2000 Working Paper, World Health Organization, Geneva 2002.
141. Review Manager 2014 [Computer program] Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager 5 (RevMan 5). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
142. Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen US, Mannino S, Milunsky A. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. New England Journal of Medicine 1995;333(21):1369-73.
143. Saneei P, Larijani B, Esmaillzadeh A. Rice consumption, incidence of chronic diseases and risk of mortality: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Public Health Nutrition 2017;20(2):233-44. [PUBMED: 27577106]
144. Saunders R, Betschart A. In: Inglett GE, Charalambous G editor(s). Tropical foods: chemistry and nutrition. New York: Academic Press, 1979:191-216.
145. Scrimshaw NS. INCAP studies of nutrition and infection. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2010;31(1):54-67.
146. Shah D, Sachdev HS, Gera T, De-Regil LM, Peña-Rosas JP. Fortification of staple foods with zinc for improving zinc status and other health outcomes in the general population. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010697]
147. Singhal N, Austin J. A clinical review of micronutrients in HIV infection. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care 2002;1(2):63-75.
148. Sommer A, West KP, editors. Vitamin A deficiency. Health, survival and vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
149. Soriguer F, Colomo N, Oliveira G, García-Fuentes E, Esteva I, Ruiz de Adana M, et al. White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. Clinical Nutrition 2013;32:481-4.
150. Stevens GA, Finucane MM, De-Regil LM, Paciorek CJ, Flaxman SR, Branca F, et al. Global, regional, and national trends in haemoglobin concentration and prevalence of total and severe anaemia in children and pregnant and non-pregnant women for 1995-2011: a systematic analysis of population-representative data. Lancet Global Health 2013; Vol. 1, issue 1:e16-25.
151. Stevens GA, Bennett JE, Hennocq Q, Lu Y, De-Regil LM, et al. Trends and mortality effects of vitamin A deficiency in children in 138 low-income and middle-income countries between 1991 and 2013: a pooled analysis of population-based surveys. Lancet Global Health 2015; Vol. 3, issue 5:e528-e536.
152. Stoltzfus RJ. Iron interventions for women and children in low-income countries. Journal of Nutrition 2011;141(4):756S-62S.
153. Tsang BL, Moreno R, Dabestani N, Pachón H, Spohrer R, Milani P. Public and private sector dynamics in scaling up rice fortification: the Colombian experience and its lessons. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2016;37(3):317-328.
154. Ueffing E, Tugwell P, Welch V, Petticrew M, Kristjansson E, for the Campbell and Cochrane Equity Methods Group. Equity Checklist for Systematic Review Authors. Version 2011-11-08. www.equity.cochrane.org/files/equitychecklist2011.pdf(accessed 13 September 2012).
155. Welch RM, Graham RD. A new paradigm for world agriculture: meeting human needs: productive, sustainable, nutritious. Field Crop Research 1999;60(1-2):1-10.
156. Wessells KR, Brown KH. Estimating the global prevalence of zinc deficiency: results based on zinc availability in national food supplies and the prevalence of stunting. PloS One 2012;7(11):e50568.
157. West Jr KP, Katz J, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Pradhan EK, Shrestha SR, et al. Double blind, cluster randomised trial of low dose supplementation with vitamin A or carotene on mortality related to pregnancy in Nepal. BMJ 1999;318(7183):570-5.
158. World Health Assembly. Resolution WHA63.17. Birth defects. Sixty-third World Health Assembly, Geneva 17-21 May 2010. Resolutions and decisions. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010.
159. World Health Organization. Iron deficiency anemia: assessment prevention and control—a guide for program managers. NHD 01, 3rd edition 2001.
160. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002.
161. World Health Organization (WHO). Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 1993-2005. Global Database on Vitamin A Deficiency. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
162. World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
163. Barros FC, Victora CG, Scherpbier RW, Gwatkin D. Health and nutrition of children: equity and social determinants. In: Blas E, Sivasankara Kurup A editor(s). Equity, social determinants and public health programmes. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010:32-49. [http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563970_eng.pdf]
164. World Health Organization. Haemoglobin Concentrations for the Diagnosis of Anaemia and Assessment of Severity. WHO/NMH/NHD/MNM/11.1. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011.
165. World Health Organization. Intermittent iron supplementation for menstruating women. www.who.int/nutrition/publications/micronutrients/weekly_iron_folicacid.pdf (accessed 7 April 2012).
166. World Health Organization. Guideline: Use of Multiple Micronutrient Powders for Home Fortification of Foods Consumed by Infants and Children 6–23 Months of Age. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011.
167. WHO 2011d World Health Organization. Guideline: Intermittent Iron Supplementation in Preschool and School Age Children. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011.
168. WHO 2011e World Health Organization. Guideline: Vitamin A Supplementation in Infants and Children 6–59 Months of Age. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011.
169. WHO 2011f World Health Organization. Haemoglobin Concentrations for the Diagnosis of Anaemia and Assessment of Severity. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System. Geneva: WHO, 2011.
170. World Health Organization. Guideline: Fortification of Food-Grade Salt with Iodine for the Prevention and Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014.
171. WHO 2015a World Health Organization. The Global Prevalence of Anaemia in 2011. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.
172. World Health Organization. Guideline: Optimal Serum and Red Blood Cell Folate Concentrations in Women of Reproductive Age for Prevention of Neural Tube Defects. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.
173. WHO 2016 World Health Organization. WHO Recommendations on Antenatal Care for a Positive Pregnancy Experience. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016.
174. World Health Organization. Nutritional Anaemias: Tools for Effective Prevention and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2017.
175. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory. www.who.int/gho/en/(accessed 3 July 2019).
176. World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Logic model for micronutrient interventions in public health. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System. (WHO/NMH/NHD/MNM/16.1). Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016.
177. WHO/FAO 2004 World Health Organization, Food, Nutrition Organization of the United Nations. Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition. 2nd Edition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.
178. WHO/FAO 2006 Allen L, de Benoist B, Dary O, Hurrell R, editors. WHO/FAO Guidelines on Food Fortification with Micronutrients. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2006.
179. Zimmermann MB, Hurrell RF. Nutritional iron deficiency. Lancet 2007;370(9586):511-20.
180. Zimmermann MB, Chassard C, Rohner F, N'Goran EK, Nindjin C, Dostal A, et al. The effects of iron fortification on the gut microbiota in African children: a randomized controlled trial in Côte d'Ivoire. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;92(6):1406-15.
181. Ashong J, Muthayya S, De-Regil LM, Laillou A, Guyondet C, Moench-Pfanner R, et al. Fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals for addressing micronutrient malnutrition. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009902; CD009902]