Explanation and Abductive Inference

The Oxford Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Lombrozo, Tania ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Abduction; Abductive inference; Explanation; Inference to the best explanation; Self explanation; Understanding

Indexed keywords

EID: 85066370325     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0014     Document Type: Chapter

References (151)

1. Ahn, W. (1998). Why are different features central for natural kinds and artifacts? Cognition, 69, 135-178.
2. Ahn, W., & Bailenson, J. (1996). Causal attribution as a search for underlying mechanisms: An explanation of the conjunction fallacy and the discounting principle. Cognitive Psychology, 31, 82-123.
3. Ahn, W., Brewer, W. F., & Mooney, R. J. (1992). Schema acquisition from a single example. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 391-412.
4. Ahn, W., Kalish, C. W., Medin, D. L., & Gelman, S. A. (1995). The role of covariation vs. mechanism information in causal attribution. Cognition, 54, 299-352.
5. Ahn, W., & Kim, N. S. (2000). The causal status effect in categorization: An overview. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation 40 (pp. 23-65) New York: Academic Press.
6. Ahn, W., Marsh, J. K., Luhmann, C. C., & Lee, K. (2002). Effect of theory-based feature correlations on typicality judgments. Memory and Cognition, 30, 107-118.
7. Ahn, W., Novick, L., & Kim, N. S. (2003). Understanding it makes it more normal. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 10, 746-752.
8. Amsterlaw, J., & Wellman, H. (2006). Theories of mind in transition: A microgenetic study of the development of false belief understanding. Journal of Cognition and Development, 7, 139-172.
9. Anderson, C. A., Krull, D. S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Explanations: Processes and consequences. In E.T. Higins & A.W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 271-296). New York: Guilford Press.
10. Anderson, C. A., & Sechler, E. S. (1986). Effects of explanation and counterexplanation on the development and use of social theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 24-34.
11. Baker, A. (2010). Simplicity. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Spring 2010 ed.). URL Retrieved August 2011, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/simplicity/
12. Baillargeon, R. (2004). Infants' physical world. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 89-94.
13. Baram-Tsabari, A., & Yarden, A. (2005). Characterizing children's spontaneous interests in science and technology. International Journal of Science Education, 27, 803-826.
14. Baum, L. A., Danovitch, J. H., & Keil, F. C. (2008). Children's sensitivity to circular explanations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 100, 146-155.
15. Bechtel, W. (2008). Mental mechanisms: Philosophical perspectives on cognitive neuroscience. London: Routledge.
16. Berlyne, D. E. (1954). A theory of human curiosity. British Journal of Psychology, 45, 180-191.
17. Bonawitz, E.B. & Lombrozo, T. (in press). Occam's rattle: children's use of simplicity and probability to constrain inference. Developmental Psychology.
18. Brem, S. K., & Rips, L. J. (2000) Explanation and evidence in informal argument. Cognitive Science, 24, 573-604.
19. Brown, A. L., & Kane, M. J. (1988). Preschool children can learn to transfer: Learning to learn and learning from example. Cognitive Psychology, 20, 493-523.
20. Burch, R. (2010). Charles Sanders Peirce. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2010 ed.). Retrieved August 2011, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/peirce/
21. Callanan, M. A., & Oakes, L. (1992). Preschoolers' questions and parents' explanations: Causal thinking in everyday activity. Cognitive Development, 7, 213-233.
22. Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
23. Casler, K., & Kelemen, D. (2008). Developmental continuity in the teleo-functional explanation: Reasoning about nature among Romanian Romani adults. Journal of Cognition and Development, 9, 340-362.
24. Chi, M. T. H. (2000). Self-explaining expository texts: The dual processes of generating inferences and repairing mental models. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (pp. 161-238). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. Chi, M. T. H. (2009). Active-constructive-interactive: A conceptual framework for differentiating learning activities. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1, 73-105.
26. Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13, 145-182.
27. Chi, M. T. H., de Leeuw, N., Chiu, M. H., & LaVancher, C. (1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cognitive Science, 18, 439-477.
28. Chin-Parker, S., & Bradner, A. (2010). Background shifts affect explanatory style: How a pragmatic theory of explanation accounts for background effects in the generation of explanations. Cognitive Processing, 11, 227-249.
29. Chouinard, M. (2007). Children's questions: A mechanism for cognitive development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 72, 1-57.
30. Craik, K. (1943). The nature of explanations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
31. Craver, C. (2007). Explaining the brain: What a science of the mind-brain could be. New York: Oxford University Press.
32. Crowley, K., & Siegler, R. S. (1999). Explanation and generalization in young children's strategy learning. Child Development, 70, 304-316.
33. Darden, L. (2006). Reasoning in biological discoveries: Essays on mechanisms, interfiled relations, and anomaly resolution. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
34. Dawes, R.M. (1999). A message from psychologists to economists: Mere predictability doesn't matter like it should (without a god story appended to it). Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 39, 29-40.
35. DeJong, G. (2004). Explanation-based learning. In A. Tucker (Ed.), Computer science handbook (2nd ed., pp. 68-1-68-20).
36. Dennett, D. (1987). The intentional stance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37. Einhorn, H. J., & Hogarth, R. M. (1986). Judging probable cause. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 3-19.
38. Fonseca, B. A., & Chi, M. T. H. (2010). Instruction based on self-explanation. In R. Mayer & P. Alexander (Eds.), The handbook of research on learning and instruction (pp. 296-321). New York: Routledge Press.
39. Forster, M. R. (2000). Key concepts in model selection - performance and generalizability. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 44, 205-231.
40. Frazier, B. N., Gelman, S. A., & Wellman, H. M. (2009). Preschoolers' search for explanatory information within adult-child conversation. Child Development, 80, 1592-1611.
41. Friedman, M. (1974). Explanation and scientific understanding. Journal of Philosophy, 71, 5-19.
42. Garfinkel, A. (1990). Forms of explanation: Rethinking the questions in social theory. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
43. Glassner, A., Weinstock, M., & Neuman, Y. (2005). Pupils' evaluation and generation of evidence and explanation in argumentation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 105-118.
44. Goodman, N. D., Baker, C. L., Bonawitz, E. B., Mansinghka, V. K., Gopnik, A., Wellman, H.,... Tenenbaum, J. B. (2006). Intuitive theories of mind: A rational approach to false belief. In R. Sun, N. Miyake, C. Schunn, & S. Lane (Eds.), Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1382-1387).
45. Gopnik, A. (2000). Explanation as orgasm and the drive for causal knowledge: The function, evolution, and phenomenology of the theory-formation system. In F. Keil & R. A. Wilson (Eds.), Explanation and cognition (pp. 299-324). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
46. Gopnik, A., & Meltzoff, A. (1997). Words, thoughts and theories. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
47. Graesser, A. C., Langston, M. C., & Baggett, W. B. (1993). Exploring information about concepts by asking questions. In G. V. Nakamura, R. M. Taraban, & D. Medin (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 29: Categorization by humans and machines (pp. 411-436). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
48. Greif, M., Kemler-Nelson, D., Keil, F. C., & Guiterrez, F. (2006). What do children want to know about animals and artifacts? Domain-specific requests for information. Psychological Science, 17, 455-459.
49. Harman, G. (1965). The inference to the best explanation. Philosophical Review, 74, 88-95.
50. Hart, H. L. A., & Honoré, T. (1985). Causation in the law (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
51. Hastie, R., & Pennington, N. (2000) Explanation-based decision making. In T. Connolly, H. R. Arkes, & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgment and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (2nd ed., pp. 212-228). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
52. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
53. Hempel, C. (1965). Aspects of scientific explanation and other essays in the philosophy of science. New York: Free Press.
54. Hempel, C. G., & Oppenheim, P. (1948). Studies in the logic of explanation. Philosophy of Science, 15, 135-175.
55. Heussen, D. S. (2010). When functions and causes compete. Thinking and Reasoning, 16, 233-250.
56. Hickling, A. K., & Wellman, H. M. (2001). The emergence of children's causal explanations and theories: Evidence from everyday conversation. Developmental Psychology, 37, 668-683.
57. Hilton, D. J. (1990). Conversational processes and causal explanation. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 65-81.
58. Hilton, D. J. (1996). Mental models and causal explanation: Judgments of probable cause and explanatory relevance. Thinking and Reasoning, 2, 273-308.
59. Hilton, D. J., & Slugoski, B. R. (1986). Knowledge-based causal attribution: The abnormal conditions focus model. Psychological Review, 93, 75-88.
60. Hood, L., & Bloom, L. (1979). What, when, and how about why: A longitudinal study of the early expressions of causality. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 44(6, serial no. 181).
61. Hooper, S. (1992). Effects of peer interaction during computer-based mathematics instruction. Journal of Educational Research, 85, 180-189.
62. Isaacs, N. (1930). Children's "why" questions. In S. Isaacs (Ed.), Intellectual growth in young children (pp. 291-349). London: Routledge.
63. Johnson-Laird, P. N., Girotto, V., & Legrenzi, P. (2004). Reasoning from inconsistency to consistency. Psychological Review, 111, 640-661.
64. Keil, F. C. (1992). The origins of an autonomous biology. In M. R. Gunnar & M. Maratsos (Eds.), Modularity and constraints in language and cognition. Vol. 25: Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (pp. 103-138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
65. Keil, F. C. (1994). The birth and nurturance concepts by domains: The origins of concepts of living things. In L. A. Hirschfeld & S. Gelman (Eds.), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture (pp. 234-254). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
66. Keil, F. C. (1995). The growth of causal understanding of natural kinds. In D. Sperber, D. Premack, & A. J. Premack (Eds.), Causal cognition: A multi-disciplinary debate (pp. 234-262). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
67. Keil, F. C. (2003). Folkscience: Coarse interpretations of a complex reality. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 368-373.
68. Keil, F. C. (2006). Explanation and understanding. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 227-254.
69. Keil, F. C., & Wilson, R. A. (2000). Explanation and cognition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
70. Kelemen, D. (1999) Function, goals and intention: Children's teleological reasoning about objects. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3, 461-468.
71. Kelemen, D., & Rosset, E. (2009). The human function compunction: Teleological explanation in adults. Cognition, 111, 138-143.
72. Kelly, K. (2004). Justification as truth-finding efficiency: How Ockham's Razor works. Minds and Machines, 14, 485-505.
73. Kitcher, P. (1989). Explanatory unification and the causal structure of the world. In P. Kitcher & W. Salmon (Eds.), Scientific explanation (pp. 410-505). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
74. Koehler, D. J. (1991). Explanation, imagination, and confidence in judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 499-519.
75. Koslowski, B. (1996). Theory and evidence: The development of scientific reasoning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
76. Krull, D. S., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Explanation, cognitive psychology of. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 8, pp. 5150-5154). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
77. Kuhn, D. (2001). How do people know? Psychological Science, 12, 1-8.
78. Kuhn, D., & Katz, J. (2009). Are self-explanations always beneficial? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 386-394.
79. Lagnado, D. (1994). The psychology of explanation: A Bayesian approach. Unpublished Masters thesis. Schools of Psychology and Computer Science, University of Birmingham, England.
80. Legare, C. H. (in press). Exploring explanation: Explaining inconsistent evidence informs exploratory, hypothesis-testing behavior in young children. Child Development.
81. Legare, C. H., Gelman, S. A., & Wellman, H. M. (2010). Inconsistency with prior knowledge triggers children's causal explanatory reasoning. Child Development, 81, 929-944.
82. Legare, C. H., Wellman, H. M., & Gelman, S. A. (2009). Evidence for an explanation advantage in naïve biological reasoning. Cognitive Psychology, 58, 177-194.
83. Lipton, P. (2004). Inference to the best explanation. New York: Routledge.
84. Lombrozo, T. (2006). The structure and function of explanations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 464-470.
85. Lombrozo, T. (2007). Simplicity and probability in causal explanation. Cognitive Psychology, 55, 232-257.
86. Lombrozo, T. (2009). Explanation and categorization: How "why?" informs "what?" Cognition, 110, 248-253.
87. Lombrozo, T. (2010a). From conceptual representations to explanatory relations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 218-219.
88. Lombrozo, T. (2010b). Causal-explanatory pluralism: How intentions, functions, and mechanisms influence causal ascriptions. Cognitive Psychology, 61, 303-332.
89. Lombrozo, T., & Carey, S. (2006). Functional explanation and the function of explanation. Cognition, 99, 167-204.
90. Lombrozo, T., Kelemen, D., & Zaitchik, D. (2007). Inferring design: Evidence of a preference for teleological explanations in patients with Alzheimer's Disease. Psychological Science, 18, 999-1006.
91. Lu, H., Yuille, A. L., Liljeholm, M., Cheng, P. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (2008). Bayesian generic priors for causal learning. Psychological Review, 115, 955-982.
92. Machery, E. (2009). Doing without concepts. New York: Oxford University Press.
93. Mackie, J. L. (1980). The cement of the universe: A study of causation. New York: Oxford University Press.
94. Magnani, L. (2001), Abduction, reason, and science. Processes of discovery and explanation. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
95. Malle, B. F. (2004). How the mind explains behavior: Folk explanations, meaning, and social interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
96. Margolis, E. (1995). The significance of the theory analogy in the psychological study of concepts. Mind and Language, 10, 45-71.
97. Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. New York: W. H. Freeman.
98. Mills, C., & Keil, F. C. (2004). Knowing the limits of one's understanding: The development of an awareness of an illusion of explanatory depth. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 1-32.
99. Miyake, N., & Norman, D. A. (1979). To ask a question one must know enough to know what is not known. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 357-364.
100. Murphy, G. L., & Allopenna, P. D. (1994). The locus of knowledge effects in concept learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 20, 904-919.
101. Murphy, G. L., & Medin, D. L. (1985). The role of theories in conceptual coherence. Psychological Review, 92, 289-316.
102. Myrvold, W. C. (2003). A Bayesian account of the virtue of unification. Philosophy of Science, 70, 399-423.
103. Needham, D. R., & Begg, I. M. (1991). Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer: Memory-oriented training promotes memory for training. Memory and Cognition, 19, 543-557.
104. Patalano, A. L., Chin-Parker, S., & Ross, B. H. (2006). The importance of being coherent: Category coherence, cross-classification, and reasoning. Journal of Memory and Language, 54, 407-424.
105. Pennington, N., & Hastie, R. (1992). Explaining the evidence: Tests of the story-model for juror decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 189-206.
106. Pennington, N., & Hastie, R. (1993). The story model for juror decision making. In R. Hastie (Ed.), Inside the juror: The psychology of juror decision making (pp. 192-221). Cambridge, England and New York: Cambridge University Press.
107. Peterson, C., & Slaughter, V. (2003). Opening windows into the mind: Mothers' preferences for mental state explanations and children's theory of mind. Cognitive Development, 18, 399-429.
108. Piaget, J. (1929). The child's conception of the world. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
109. Povinelli, D. J., & Dunphy-Lelii, S. (2001). Do chimpanzees seek explanations? Preliminary comparative investigation. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 185-193.
110. Prasada, S., & Dillingham, E. M. (2006). Principled and statistical connections in common sense conception. Cognition, 99, 73-112.
111. Prasada, S., & Dillingham, E. M. (2009). Representation of principled connections: A window onto the formal aspect of common sense conception. Cognitive Science, 33, 401-448.
112. Preston, J., & Epley, N. (2005). Explanations versus applications: The explanatory power of valuable beliefs. Psychological Science, 16, 826-832.
113. Putnam, H. (Ed.) (1975). Philosophy and our mental life. In Mind, language and reality: Philosophical papers (Vol. 2, pp. 291-303). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
114. Railton, P. (1981). Probability, explanation, and information. Synthese, 48, 233-256.
115. Ranney, M., & Thagard, P. (1988). Explanatory coherence and belief revision in naive physics. In Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 426-432). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
116. Read, S. J., & Marcus-Newhall, A. (1993). Explanatory coherence in social explanations: A parallel distributed processing account. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 429-447.
117. Rehder, B. (2006). When causality and similarity compete in category-based property induction. Memory and Cognition, 34, 3-16.
118. Rips, L. (1989). Similarity, typicality, and categorization. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 21-59). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
119. Rips, L. J. (2002). Circular reasoning. Cognitive Science, 26, 767-795.
120. Rittle-Johnson, B. (2006). Promoting transfer: The effects of direct instruction and self-explanation. Child Development, 77, 1-15.
121. Roscoe, R. D., & Chi, M. T. H. (2008). Tutor learning: The role of explaining and responding to questions. Instructional Science, 36 (4), 321-350.
122. Ross, J., & Cousins, J. B. (1995) Giving and receiving explanations in cooperative learning groups. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 41, 104-122.
123. Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., Strack, F., & Steinmetz, J. (1977). Social explanation and social expectation: Effects of real and hypothetical explanations on subjective likelihood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 817-829.
124. Rozenblit, L. R., & Keil, F. C. (2002). The misunderstood limits of folk science: An illusion of explanatory depth. Cognitive Science, 26, 521-562.
125. Salmon, W. (1984). Scientific explanation and the causal structure of the world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
126. Salmon, W. (1989). Four decades of scientific explanation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
127. Shtulman, A. (2006). Qualitative differences between naive and scientific theories of evolution. Cognitive Psychology, 52, 170-194.
128. Shultz, T. R. (1980). Rules of causal attribution. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 47, 1-51.
129. Siegler, R. S. (1995). How does change occur: A microgenetic study of number conservation. Cognitive Psychology, 28, 225-273.
130. Siegler, R. S. (2002). Microgenetic studies of self-explanations. In N. Granott & J. Parziale (Eds.), Microdevelopment: Transition processes in development and learning (pp. 31-58). New York: Cambridge University Press.
131. Sloman, S. A. (1994). When explanations compete: The role of explanatory coherence on judgments of likelihood. Cognition, 52, 1-21.
132. Sloman, S. A., Love, B. C., & Ahn, W. (1998). Feature centrality and conceptual coherence. Cognitive Science, 22, 189-228.
133. Strevens, M. (2008). Depth: An account of scientific explanation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
134. Sully, J. (1900). Studies of childhood. New York: D. Appleton & Company.
135. Thagard, P. (1989). Explanatory coherence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 435-467.
136. Thagard, P. (2000). Probabilistic networks and explanatory coherence. Cognitive Science Quarterly, 1, 93-116.
137. Thagard, P. (2006). Evaluating explanations in science, law, and everyday life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 141-145.
138. Trout, J. D. (2002). Scientific explanation and the sense of understanding. Philosophy of Science, 69, 212-233.
139. Trout, J. D. (2008). Seduction without cause: Uncovering explanatory neurophilia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 281-282.
140. van Fraassen, B. C. (1980). The scientific image. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
141. Weisberg, D. S., Keil, F. C., Goodstein, J., Rawson, E., & Gray, J. (2008). The seductive allure of neuroscience explanations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20 (3), 470-477.
142. Wellman, H. M. (2011). Reinvigorating explanations for the study of early cognitive development. Child Development Perspectives, 5 (1), 33-38.
143. Wellman, H. M., & Gelman, S. A. (1992). Cognitive development: Foundational theories of core domains. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 337-375.
144. Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2007). Causal reasoning as informed by the early development of explanations. In A. Gopnik & L. E. Schulz (Eds.), Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, and computation (pp. 261-279). New York: Oxford University Press.
145. Williams, J. J., & Lombrozo, T. (2010). The role of explanation in discovery and generalization: Evidence from category learning. Cognitive Science, 34, 776-806.
146. Williams, J. J., Lombrozo, T., & Rehder, B. (2010). Why does explaining help learning? Insight from an explanation impairment effect. In S. Ohlsson & R. Catrambone (Eds.), Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2906-2911). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.
147. Wittwer, J., Nuckles, M., & Renkl, A. (2008). Is underestimation less detrimental than overestimations? The impact of experts' beliefs about a layperson's knowledge on learning and question asking. Instructional Science, 36, 27-52.
148. Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2008). Why instructional explanations often do not work: A framework for understanding the effectiveness of instructional explanations. Educational Psychologist, 43, 49-64.
149. Woodward, J. (2003). Making things happen: A theory of causal explanation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
150. Woodward, J. (2010). Scientific explanation. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Spring 2010 ed.). Retrieved August 2011, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/scientific-explanation/
151. Wright, L. (1976). Teleological explanations. Berkeley: University of California Press.