Polyploidy in tissue homeostasis and regeneration

Development (Cambridge)

Volumn 145, Issue 14, 2018, Pages

  Øvrebø, Jan Inge ^a   Edgar, Bruce A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF UTAH   (United States)

Author keywords

Endocycling; Endomitosis; Healing; Hippo; Polyploid; Wound

Indexed keywords

BIOMASS PRODUCTION; CELL CYCLE; CELL FUSION; CELL SIZE; CELL STRESS; DROSOPHILA; ENDOREDUPLICATION; EPIDERMIS; HOMEOSTASIS; INJURY; LIVER REGENERATION; MAMMAL; MITOSIS; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; MULTINUCLEAR CELL; NONHUMAN; POLYPLOIDY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TISSUE REGENERATION; TISSUE REPAIR; WOUND HEALING; ANIMAL; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; CELL DIVISION; DNA REPLICATION; HUMAN; PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS; PHYSIOLOGY; REGENERATION;

ANIMALS; CELL DIVISION; DNA REPLICATION; HUMANS; ORGAN SPECIFICITY; POLYPLOIDY; REGENERATION; STRESS, PHYSIOLOGICAL;

EID: 85050776962     PISSN: 09501991     EISSN: 14779129     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1242/dev.156034     Document Type: Review

References (228)

1. Andreassen, P. R., Martineau, S. N. and Margolis, R. L. (1996). Chemical induction of mitotic checkpoint override in mammalian cells results in aneuploidy following a transient tetraploid state. Mutat. Res. 372, 181-194.
2. Anisimov, A. P. (2005). Endopolyploidy as a morphogenetic factor of development. Cell Biol. Int. 29, 993-1004.
3. Aragona, M., Panciera, T., Manfrin, A., Giulitti, S., Michielin, F., Elvassore, N., Dupont, S. and Piccolo, S. (2013). A mechanical checkpoint controls multicellular growth through YAP/TAZ regulation by actin-processing factors. Cell 154, 1047-1059.
4. Artero, R., Furlong, E. E., Beckett, K., Scott, M. P. and Baylies, M. (2003). Notch and Ras signaling pathway effector genes expressed in fusion competent and founder cells during Drosophila myogenesis. Development 130, 6257-6272.
5. Audibert, A., Simon, F. and Gho, M. (2005). Cell cycle diversity involves differential regulation of Cyclin E activity in the Drosophila bristle cell lineage. Development 132, 2287-2297.
6. Bäumer, D., Ströhlein, N. M. and Schoppmeier, M. (2012). Opposing effects of Notch-signaling in maintaining the proliferative state of follicle cells in the telotrophic ovary of the beetle Tribolium. Front. Zool. 9, 15.
7. Bell, S. P. and Labib, K. (2016). Chromosome duplication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 203, 1027-1067.
8. Bell, S. P. and Stillman, B. (1992). Atp-dependent recognition of eukaryotic origins of DNA replication by a multiprotein complex. Nature 357, 128-134.
9. Berckmans, B., Lammens, T., Van Den Daele, H., Magyar, Z., Bogre, L. and De Veylder, L. (2011). Light-dependent regulation of DEL1 is determined by the antagonistic action of E2Fb and E2Fc. Plant Physiol. 157, 1440-1451.
10. Berger, S., Schafer, G., Kesper, D. A., Holz, A., Eriksson, T., Palmer, R. H., Beck, L., Klambt, C., Renkawitz-Pohl, R. and Onel, S.-F. (2008). WASP and SCAR have distinct roles in activating the Arp2/3 complex during myoblast fusion. J. Cell Sci. 121, 1303-1313.
11. Biesterfeld, S., Gerres, K., Fischer-Wein, G. and Bocking, A. (1994). Polyploidy in non-neoplastic tissues. J. Clin. Pathol. 47, 38-42.
12. Bour, B. A., Chakravarti, M., West, J. M. and Abmayr, S. M. (2000). Drosophila SNS, a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily that is essential for myoblast fusion. Genes Dev. 14, 1498-1511.
13. Breuer, C., Ishida, T. and Sugimoto, K. (2010). Developmental control of endocycles and cell growth in plants. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 13, 654-660.
14. Britton, J. S. and Edgar, B. A. (1998). Environmental control of the cell cycle in Drosophila: nutrition activates mitotic and endoreplicative cells by distinct mechanisms. Development 125, 2149-2158.
15. Britton, J. S., Lockwood, W. K., Li, L., Cohen, S. M. and Edgar, B. A. (2002). Drosophila’s insulin/PI3-kinase pathway coordinates cellular metabolism with nutritional conditions. Dev. Cell 2, 239-249.
16. Brodsky, V. Y., Brodskiĭ, V. I. A., Brodskij, V. J., Brodskiĭ, V. I. A. and Uryuvaeva, I. V. (1985). Genome Multiplication in Growth and Development: Biology of Polyploid and Polytene Cells. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
17. Broek, D., Bartlett, R., Crawford, K. and Nurse, P. (1991). Involvement of P34cdc2 in establishing the dependency of S phase on mitosis. Nature 349, 388-393.
18. Bunker, B. D., Nellimoottil, T. T., Boileau, R. M., Classen, A. K. and Bilder, D. (2015). The transcriptional response to tumorigenic polarity loss in Drosophila. eLife 4, e03189.
19. Butterworth, F. M. and Rasch, E. M. (1986). Adipose-tissue of Drosophilamelanogaster 7. Distribution of nuclear-DNA amounts along the anterior posterior axis in the larval fat-body. J. Exp. Zool. 239, 77-85.
20. Buttitta, L. A. and Edgar, B. A. (2007). Mechanisms controlling cell cycle exit upon terminal differentiation. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 19, 697-704.
21. Campsteijn, C., Ovrebo, J. I., Karlsen, B. O. and Thompson, E. M. (2012). Expansion of cyclin D and CDK1 paralogs in Oikopleura dioica, a chordate employing diverse cell cycle variants. Mol. Biol. Evol. 29, 487-502.
22. Cao, J. L., Wang, J. H., Jackman, C. P., Cox, A. H., Trembley, M. A., Balowski, J. J., Cox, B. D., De Simone, A., Dickson, A. L., Di Talia, S. et al. (2017). Tension creates an endoreplication wavefront that leads regeneration of epicardial tissue. Dev. Cell 42, 600.
23. Caro, E., Desvoyes, B., Ramirez-Parra, E., Sanchez, M. P. and Gutierrez, C. (2008). Endoreduplication control during plant development. SEB Exp. Biol. Ser. 59, 167-187.
24. Carter, S. L., Eklund, A. C., Kohane, I. S., Harris, L. N. and Szallasi, Z. (2006). A signature of chromosomal instability inferred from gene expression profiles predicts clinical outcome in multiple human cancers. Nat. Genet. 38, 1043-1048.
25. Chanprasert, S., Geddis, A. E., Barroga, C., Fox, N. E. and Kaushansky, K. (2006). Thrombopoietin (TPO) induces c-myc expression through a PI3K- and MAPK-dependent pathway that is not mediated by Akt, PKC zeta or mTOR in TPO-dependent cell lines and primary megakaryocytes. Cell. Signal. 18, 1212-1218.
26. Chen, S. Y. and Bell, S. P. (2011). CDK prevents Mcm2-7 helicase loading by inhibiting Cdt1 interaction with Orc6. Gene Dev 25, 363-372.
27. Chen, E. H. and Olson, E. N. (2004). Towards a molecular pathway for myoblast fusion in Drosophila. Trends Cell Biol. 14, 452-460.
28. Chen, H.-Z., Tsai, S.-Y. and Leone, G. (2009). Emerging roles of E2Fs in cancer: an exit from cell cycle control. Nat. Rev. Cancer 9, 785-797.
29. Chen, H.-Z., Ouseph, M. M., Li, J., Pécot, T., Chokshi, V., Kent, L., Bae, S., Byrne, M., Duran, C., Comstock, G. et al. (2012). Canonical and atypical E2Fs regulate the mammalian endocycle. Nat. Cell Biol. 14, 1192-1202.
30. Chen, S., Stout, J. R., Dharmaiah, S., Yde, S., Calvi, B. R. and Walczak, C. E. (2016). Transient endoreplication down-regulates the kinesin-14 HSET and contributes to genomic instability. Mol. Biol. Cell 27, 2911-2923.
31. Chong, J.-L., Tsai, S.-Y., Sharma, N., Opavsky, R., Price, R., Wu, L., Fernandez, S. A. and Leone, G. (2009). E2f3a and E2f3b contribute to the control of cell proliferation and mouse development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 29, 414-424.
32. Chrysanthou, S., Senner, C. E., Woods, L., Fineberg, E., Okkenhaug, H., Burge, S., Perez-Garcia, V. and Hemberger, M. (2018). A critical role of TET1/2 proteins in cell-cycle progression of trophoblast stem cells. Stem Cell Rep. 10, 1355-1368.
33. Cocker, J. H., Piatti, S., Santocanale, C., Nasmyth, K. and Diffley, J. F. X. (1996). An essential role for the Cdc6 protein in forming the pre-replicative complexes of budding yeast. Nature 379, 180-182.
34. Coward, J. and Harding, A. (2014). Size does matter: why polyploid tumor cells are critical drug targets in the war on cancer. Front. Oncol. 4, 123.
35. Davoli, T. and de Lange, T. (2011). The causes and consequences of polyploidy in normal development and cancer. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 27, 585-610.
36. de Bruin, A., Maiti, B., Jakoi, L., Timmers, C., Buerki, R. and Leone, G. (2003). Identification and characterization of E2F7, a novel mammalian E2F family member capable of blocking cellular proliferation. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 42041-42049.
37. de Renty, C., DePamphilis, M. L. and Ullah, Z. (2014). Cytoplasmic localization of p21 protects trophoblast giant cells from DNA damage induced apoptosis. PLoS ONE 9, e97434.
38. De Santis Puzzonia, M., Cozzolino, A. M., Grassi, G., Bisceglia, F., Strippoli, R., Guarguaglini, G., Citarella, F., Sacchetti, B., Tripodi, M., Marchetti, A. et al. (2016). TGFbeta induces binucleation/polyploidization in hepatocytes through a Src-dependent cytokinesis failure. PLos ONE 11, e0167158.
39. De Veylder, L., Larkin, J. C. and Schnittger, A. (2011). Molecular control and function of endoreplication in development and physiology. Trends Plant Sci. 16, 624-634.
40. Demontis, F. and Perrimon, N. (2009). Integration of Insulin receptor/Foxo signaling and dMyc activity during muscle growth regulates body size in Drosophila. Development 136, 983-993.
41. Deng, W. M., Althauser, C. and Ruohola-Baker, H. (2001). Notch-Delta signaling induces a transition from mitotic cell cycle to endocycle in Drosophila follicle cells. Development 128, 4737-4746.
42. DePamphilis, M. L. (2016). Genome duplication: the heartbeat of developing organisms. Curr. Top. Dev. Biol. 116, 201-229.
43. Diril, M. K., Ratnacaram, C. K., Padmakumar, V. C., Du, T., Wasser, M., Coppola, V., Tessarollo, L. and Kaldis, P. (2012). Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) is essential for cell division and suppression of DNA re-replication but not for liver regeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 3826-3831.
44. Duelli, D. and Lazebnik, Y. (2007). Cell-to-cell fusion as a link between viruses and cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 7, 968-976.
45. Duelli, D. M., Padilla-Nash, H. M., Berman, D., Murphy, K. M., Ried, T. and Lazebnik, Y. (2007). A virus causes cancer by inducing massive chromosomal instability through cell fusion. Curr. Biol. 17, 431-437.
46. Duncan, A. W., Taylor, M. H., Hickey, R. D., Hanlon Newell, A. E., Lenzi, M. L., Olson, S. B., Finegold, M. J. and Grompe, M. (2010). The ploidy conveyor of mature hepatocytes as a source of genetic variation. Nature 467, 707-710.
47. Duncan, A. W., Hanlon Newell, A. E., Bi, W., Finegold, M. J., Olson, S. B., Beaudet, A. L. and Grompe, M. (2012a). Aneuploidy as a mechanism for stressinduced liver adaptation. J. Clin. Invest. 122, 3307-3315.
48. Duncan, A. W., Hanlon Newell, A. E., Smith, L., Wilson, E. M., Olson, S. B., Thayer, M. J., Strom, S. C. and Grompe, M. (2012b). Frequent aneuploidy among normal human hepatocytes. Gastroenterology 142, 25-28.
49. Dupont, S. (2016). Role of YAP/TAZ in cell-matrix adhesion-mediated signalling and mechanotransduction. Exp. Cell Res. 343, 42-53.
50. Duronio, R. J. and O’Farrell, P. H. (1995). Developmental control of the G(1) to S transition in Drosophila: Cyclin E is a limiting downstream target of E2f. Gene Dev. 9, 1456-1468.
51. Ebert, L. and Pfitzer, P. (1977). Nuclear DNA of myocardial cells in the periphery of infarctions and scars. Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. 24, 209-217.
52. Edgar, B. A. and Orr-Weaver, T. L. (2001). Endoreplication cell cycles: more for less. Cell 105, 297-306.
53. Edgar, B. A., Zielke, N. and Gutierrez, C. (2014). Endocycles: a recurrent evolutionary innovation for post-mitotic cell growth. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 15, 197-210.
54. Eliades, A., Papadantonakis, N. and Ravid, K. (2010). New roles for cyclin E in megakaryocytic polyploidization. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 18909-18917.
55. Enomoto, M., Kizawa, D., Ohsawa, S. and Igaki, T. (2015). JNK signaling is converted from anti- to pro-tumor pathway by Ras-mediated switch of Warts activity. Dev. Biol. 403, 162-171.
56. Fernandes, J. J., Atreya, K. B., Desai, K. M., Hall, R. E., Patel, M. D., Desai, A. A., Benham, A. E., Mable, J. L. and Straessle, J. L. (2005). A dominant negative form of Rac1 affects myogenesis of adult thoracic muscles in Drosophila. Dev. Biol. 285, 11-27.
57. Follette, P. J., Duronio, R. J. and O’Farrell, P. H. (1998). Fluctuations in cyclin E levels are required for multiple rounds of endocycle S phase in Drosophila. Curr. Biol. 8, 235-238.
58. Fox, D. T. and Duronio, R. J. (2013). Endoreplication and polyploidy: insights into development and disease. Development 140, 3-12.
59. Fox, D. T., Gall, J. G. and Spradling, A. C. (2010). Error-prone polyploid mitosis during normal Drosophila development. Genes Dev. 24, 2294-2302.
60. Furriols, M. and Bray, S. (2001). A model Notch response element detects Suppressor of Hairless-dependent molecular switch. Curr. Biol. 11, 60-64.
61. Gandarillas, A. (2012). The mysterious human epidermal cell cycle, or an oncogene-induced differentiation checkpoint. Cell Cycle 11, 4507-4516.
62. Gandarillas, A. and Freije, A. (2014). Cycling up the epidermis: reconciling 100 years of debate. Exp. Dermatol. 23, 87-91.
63. Gandarillas, A., Molinuevo, R. and Sanz-Gomez, N. (2018). Mammalian endoreplication emerges to reveal a potential developmental timer. Cell Death Differ. 25, 471-476.
64. Ganot, P. and Thompson, E. M. (2002). Patterning through differential endoreduplication in epithelial organogenesis of the chordate, Oikopleura dioica. Dev. Biol. 252, 59-71.
65. Gaspar, P. and Tapon, N. (2014). Sensing the local environment: actin architecture and Hippo signalling. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 31, 74-83.
66. Gegas, V. C., Wargent, J. J., Pesquet, E., Granqvist, E., Paul, N. D. and Doonan, J. H. (2014). Endopolyploidy as a potential alternative adaptive strategy for Arabidopsis leaf size variation in response to UV-B. J. Exp. Bot. 65, 2757-2766.
67. Gendreau, E., Hofte, H., Grandjean, O., Brown, S. and Traas, J. (1998). Phytochrome controls the number of endoreduplication cycles in the Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyl. Plant J. 13, 221-230.
68. Gentric, G. and Desdouets, C. (2015). Liver polyploidy: Dr Jekyll or Mr Hide? Oncotarget 6, 8430-8431.
69. Gentric, G., Celton-Morizur, S. and Desdouets, C. (2012). Polyploidy and liver proliferation. Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol. 36, 29-34.
70. Gentric, G., Maillet, V., Paradis, V., Couton, D., L’Hermitte, A., Panasyuk, G., Fromenty, B., Celton-Morizur, S. and Desdouets, C. (2015). Oxidative stress promotes pathologic polyploidization in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Clin. Invest. 125, 981-992.
71. Gonzalez-Rosa, J. M., Sharpe, M., Field, D., Soonpaa, M. H., Field, L. J., Burns, C. E. and Burns, C. G. (2018). Myocardial polyploidization creates a barrier to heart regeneration in zebrafish. Dev. Cell 44, 433.
72. Grewal, S. S., Li, L., Orian, A., Eisenman, R. N. and Edgar, B. A. (2005). Mycdependent regulation of ribosomal RNA synthesis during Drosophila development. Nat. Cell Biol. 7, 295-302.
73. Guidotti, J.-E., Brégerie, O., Robert, A., Debey, P., Brechot, C. and Desdouets, C. (2003). Liver cell polyploidization: a pivotal role for binuclear hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 19095-19101.
74. Gumbiner, B. M. and Kim, N.-G. (2014). The Hippo-YAP signaling pathway and contact inhibition of growth. J. Cell Sci. 127, 709-717.
75. Gupta, N.-G. S. (2000). Hepatic polyploidy and liver growth control. Semin. Cancer Biol. 10, 161-171.
76. Gutierrez, C. (2005). Coupling cell proliferation and development in plants. Nat. Cell Biol. 7, 535-541.
77. Gutierrez, C. (2009). The Arabidopsis cell division cycle. Arabidopsis Book 7, e0120.
78. Hammond, M. P. and Laird, C. D. (1985). Control of DNA replication and spatial distribution of defined DNA sequences in salivary gland cells of Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosoma 91, 279-286.
79. Hannibal, R. L. and Baker, J. C. (2016). Selective amplification of the genome surrounding key placental genes in trophoblast giant cells. Curr. Biol. 26, 230-236.
80. Harashima, H. and Schnittger, A. (2010). The integration of cell division, growth and differentiation. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 13, 66-74.
81. Hassel, C., Zhang, B., Dixon, M. and Calvi, B. R. (2014). Induction of endocycles represses apoptosis independently of differentiation and predisposes cells to genome instability. Development 141, 112-123.
82. Hayashi, S. (1996). ACdc2 dependent checkpoint maintains diploidy in Drosophila. Development 122, 1051-1058.
83. Hayles, J., Fisher, D., Woollard, A. and Nurse, P. (1994). Temporal order of S phase and mitosis in fission yeast is determined by the state of the P34(Cdc2) mitotic B-cyclin complex. Cell 78, 813-822.
84. Heller, R. C., Kang, S., Lam, W. M., Chen, S., Chan, C. S. and Bell, S. P. (2011). Eukaryotic origin-dependent DNA replication in vitro reveals sequential action of DDK and S-CDK kinases. Cell 146, 80-91.
85. Hochegger, H., Dejsuphong, D., Sonoda, E., Saberi, A., Rajendra, E., Kirk, J., Hunt, T. and Takeda, S. (2007). An essential role for Cdk1 in S phase control is revealed via chemical genetics in vertebrate cells. J. Cell Biol. 178, 257-268.
86. Houtz, P., Bonfini, A., Liu, X., Revah, J., Guillou, A., Poidevin, M., Hens, K., Huang, H.-Y., Deplancke, B., Tsai, Y.-C. et al. (2017). Hippo, TGF-beta, and Src-MAPK pathways regulate transcription of the upd3 cytokine in Drosophila enterocytes upon bacterial infection. PLoS Genet. 13, e1007091.
87. Hsu, S.-H., Delgado, E. R., Otero, P. A., Teng, K.-Y., Kutay, H., Meehan, K. M., Moroney, J. B., Monga, J. K., Hand, N. J., Friedman, J. R. et al. (2016). MicroRNA-122 regulates polyploidization in the murine liver. Hepatology 64, 599-615.
88. Huang, J., Wu, S., Barrera, J., Matthews, K. and Pan, D. (2005). The Hippo signaling pathway coordinately regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis by inactivating Yorkie, the Drosophila Homolog of YAP. Cell 122, 421-434.
89. Jeong, J. and Conboy, I. M. (2011). Phosphatidylserine directly and positively regulates fusion of myoblasts into myotubes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 414, 9-13.
90. Jiang, H. Q., Patel, P. H., Kohlmaier, A., Grenley, M. O., McEwen, D. G. and Edgar, B. A. (2009). Cytokine/Jak/Stat signaling mediates regeneration and homeostasis in the Drosophila midgut. Cell 137, 1343-1355.
91. Jopling, C., Sleep, E., Raya, M., Marti, M., Raya, A. and Izpisua Belmonte, J. C. (2010). Zebrafish heart regeneration occurs by cardiomyocyte dedifferentiation and proliferation. Nature 464, 606-609.
92. Joubès, J. and Chevalier, C. (2000). Endoreduplication in higher plants. Plant Mol. Biol. 43, 735-745.
93. Kaneko, Y. and Knudson, A. G. (2000). Mechanism and relevance of ploidy in neuroblastoma. Gene Chromosome Canc 29, 89-95.
94. Kang, M. J., Kim, J. S., Chae, S.W., Koh, K. N. and Koh, G. Y. (1997). Cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases during cardiac development. Mol. Cells 7, 360-366.
95. Kaushansky, K. (2016). Thrombopoietin and its receptor in normal and neoplastic hematopoiesis. Thromb. J. 14.
96. Kikuchi, K., Holdway, J. E., Werdich, A. A., Anderson, R. M., Fang, Y., Egnaczyk, G. F., Evans, T., Macrae, C. A., Stainier, D. Y. R. and Poss, K. D. (2010). Primary contribution to zebrafish heart regeneration by gata4(+) cardiomyocytes. Nature 464, 601-605.
97. Kim, J. H., Jin, P., Duan, R. and Chen, E. H. (2015a). Mechanisms of myoblast fusion during muscle development. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 32, 162-170.
98. Kim, J. H., Ren, Y., Ng, W. P., Li, S., Son, S., Kee, Y.-S., Zhang, S., Zhang, G., Fletcher, D. A., Robinson, D. N. et al. (2015b). Mechanical tension drives cell membrane fusion. Dev. Cell 32, 561-573.
99. Kim, S.-H., Jeon, Y., Kim, H.-S., Lee, J.-K., Lim, H. J., Kang, D., Cho, H., Park, C.-K., Lee, H. and Lee, C.-W. (2016). Hepatocyte homeostasis for chromosome ploidization and liver function is regulated by Ssu72 protein phosphatase. Hepatology 63, 247-259.
100. Kondorosi, E., Roudier, F. and Gendreau, E. (2000). Plant cell-size control: growing by ploidy? Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 3, 488-492.
101. Lai, A. G., Kosaka, N., Abnave, P., Sahu, S. and Aboobaker, A. A. (2017). The abrogation of condensin function provides independent evidence for defining the self-renewing population of pluripotent stem cells. Dev. Biol. 433, 218-226.
102. Lanni, J. S. and Jacks, T. (1998). Characterization of the p53-dependent postmitotic checkpoint following spindle disruption. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18, 1055-1064.
103. Lasek, R. J. and Dower, W. J. (1971). Aplysia californica: analysis of nuclear DNA in individual nuclei of giant neurons. Science 172, 278-280.
104. Lee, S. H., McCormick, F. and Saya, H. (2010). Mad2 inhibits the mitotic kinesin MKlp2. J. Cell Biol. 191, 1069-1077.
105. Lee, A. J. X., Endesfelder, D., Rowan, A. J., Walther, A., Birkbak, N. J., Futreal, P. A., Downward, J., Szallasi, Z., Tomlinson, I. P. M., Howell, M. et al. (2011). Chromosomal instability confers intrinsic multidrug resistance. Cancer Res. 71, 1858-1870.
106. Lee, J.-H., Lee, C.-W., Park, S.-H. and Choe, K.-M. (2017). Spatiotemporal regulation of cell fusion by JNK and JAK/STAT signaling during Drosophila wound healing. J. Cell Sci. 130, 1917-1928.
107. Levine, D. S., Sanchez, C. A., Rabinovitch, P. S. and Reid, B. J. (1991). Formation of the tetraploid intermediate is associated with the development of cells with more than four centrioles in the elastase-simian virus 40 tumor antigen transgenic mouse model of pancreatic cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6427-6431.
108. Lilly, M. A. and Spradling, A. C. (1996). The Drosophila endocycle is controlled by Cyclin E and lacks a checkpoint ensuring S-phase completion. Genes Dev. 10, 2514-2526.
109. Liu, Z., Yue, S., Chen, X., Kubin, T. and Braun, T. (2010). Regulation of cardiomyocyte polyploidy and multinucleation by CyclinG1. Circ. Res. 106, 1498-1506.
110. Lopez-Schier, H. and St Johnston, D. (2001). Delta signaling from the germ line controls the proliferation and differentiation of the somatic follicle cells during Drosophila oogenesis. Genes Dev. 15, 1393-1405.
111. Losick, V. P. (2016). Wound-induced polyploidy is required for tissue repair. Adv. Wound Care 5, 271-278.
112. Losick, V. P., Fox, D. T. and Spradling, A. C. (2013). Polyploidization and cell fusion contribute to wound healing in the adult Drosophila epithelium. Curr. Biol. 23, 2224-2232.
113. Losick, V. P., Jun, A. S. and Spradling, A. C. (2016). Wound-induced polyploidization: regulation by Hippo and JNK signaling and conservation in mammals. PLoS ONE 11, e0151251.
114. Maines, J. Z., Stevens, L. M., Tong, X. L. and Stein, D. (2004). Drosophila dMyc is required for ovary cell growth and endoreplication. Development 131, 775-786.
115. Maiti, B., Li, J., de Bruin, A., Gordon, F., Timmers, C., Opavsky, R., Patil, K., Tuttle, J., Cleghorn, W. and Leone, G. (2005). Cloning and characterization of mouse E2F8, a novel mammalian E2F family member capable of blocking cellular proliferation. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 18211-18220.
116. Mandrioli, M., Mola, L., Cuoghi, B. and Sonetti, D. (2010). Endoreplication: a molecular trick during animal neuron evolution. Q. Rev. Biol. 85, 159-169.
117. Maqbool, S. B., Mehrotra, S., Kolpakas, A., Durden, C., Zhang, B., Zhong, H. and Calvi, B. R. (2010). Dampened activity of E2F1-DP and Myb-MuvB transcription factors in Drosophila endocycling cells. J. Cell Sci. 123, 4095-4106.
118. Margall-Ducos, G., Celton-Morizur, S., Couton, D., Bregerie, O. and Desdouets, C. (2007). Liver tetraploidization is controlled by a new process of incomplete cytokinesis. J. Cell Sci. 120, 3633-3639.
119. Marti, A., Wirbelauer, C., Scheffner, M. and Krek, W. (1999). Interaction between ubiquitin-protein ligase SCFSKP2 and E2F-1 underlies the regulation of E2F-1 degradation. Nat. Cell Biol. 1, 14-19.
120. Massarwa, R., Carmon, S., Shilo, B.-Z. and Schejter, E. D. (2007). WIP/WASpbased actin-polymerization machinery is essential for myoblast fusion in Drosophila. Dev. Cell 12, 557-569.
121. McCrann, D. J., Nguyen, H. G., Jones, M. R. and Ravid, K. (2008). Vascular smooth muscle cell polyploidy: an adaptive or maladaptive response? J. Cell. Physiol. 215, 588-592.
122. Mcdonald, T. P. (1992). Its biology, clinical aspects, and possibilities. Am. J. Pediat. Hematol. 14, 8-21.
123. Melaragno, J. E., Mehrotra, B. and Coleman, A. W. (1993). Relationship between endopolyploidy and cell size in epidermal tissue of arabidopsis. Plant Cell 5, 1661-1668.
124. Meserve, J. H. and Duronio, R. J. (2015). Scalloped and Yorkie are required for cell cycle re-entry of quiescent cells after tissue damage. Development 142, 2740-2751.
125. Mihaylov, I. S., Kondo, T., Jones, L., Ryzhikov, S., Tanaka, J., Zheng, J., Higa, L. A., Minamino, N., Cooley, L. and Zhang, H. (2002). Control of DNA replication and chromosome ploidy by geminin and cyclin A. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 1868-1880.
126. Minn, A. J., Boise, L. H. and Thompson, C. B. (1996). Expression of Bcl-x(L) and loss of p53 can cooperate to overcome a cell cycle checkpoint induced by mitotic spindle damage. Genes Dev. 10, 2621-2631.
127. Mitelman, F. (2005). Database of chromosome aberrations in cancer. Chromosome Res. 13, 5.
128. Mittal, M., Siddiqui, M. R., Tran, K., Reddy, S. P. and Malik, A. B. (2014). Reactive oxygen species in inflammation and tissue injury. Antioxid. Redox. Signal. 20, 1126-1167.
129. Miyaoka, Y., Ebato, K., Kato, H., Arakawa, S., Shimizu, S. and Miyajima, A. (2012). Hypertrophy and unconventional cell division of hepatocytes underlie liver regeneration. Curr. Biol. 22, 1166-1175.
130. Mollova, M., Bersell, K., Walsh, S., Savla, J., Das, L. T., Park, S.-Y., Silberstein, L. E., dos Remedios, C. G., Graham, D., Colan, S. et al. (2013). Cardiomyocyte proliferation contributes to heart growth in young humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110, 1446-1451.
131. Narbonne-Reveau, K., Senger, S., Pal, M., Herr, A., Richardson, H. E., Asano, M., Deak, P. and Lilly, M. A. (2008). APC/CFzr/Cdh1 promotes cell cycle progression during the Drosophila endocycle. Development 135, 1451-1461.
132. Nevzorova, Y. A., Tschaharganeh, D., Gassler, N., Geng, Y., Weiskirchen, R., Sicinski, P., Trautwein, C. and Liedtke, C. (2009). Aberrant cell cycle progression and endoreplication in regenerating livers of mice that lack a single E-type cyclin. Gastroenterology 137, 691-703, 703.e691-696.
133. Ogawa, H., Takyu, R., Morimoto, H., Toei, S., Sakon, H., Goto, S., Moriya, S. and Kono, T. (2016). Cell proliferation potency is independent of FGF4 signaling in trophoblast stem cells derived from androgenetic embryos. J. Reprod. Dev. 62, 51-58.
134. Ohlstein, B. and Spradling, A. (2007). Multipotent Drosophila intestinal stem cells specify daughter cell fates by differential notch signaling. Science 315, 988-992.
135. Oltmann, J., Heselmeyer-Haddad, K., Hernandez, L. S., Meyer, R., Torres, I., Hu, Y., Doberstein, N., Killian, J. K., Petersen, D., Zhu, Y. J. et al. (2018). Aneuploidy, TP53 mutation, and amplification of MYC correlate with increased intratumor heterogeneity and poor prognosis of breast cancer patients. Gene Chromosome Canc. 57, 165-175.
136. Orr-Weaver, T. L. (2015). When bigger is better: the role of polyploidy in organogenesis. Trends Genet. 31, 307-315.
137. Ouseph, M. M., Li, J., Chen, H.-Z., Pécot, T., Wenzel, P., Thompson, J. C., Comstock, G., Chokshi, V., Byrne, M., Forde, B. et al. (2012). Atypical E2F repressors and activators coordinate placental development. Dev. Cell 22, 849-862.
138. Øvrebø, J. I., Campsteijn, C., Kourtesis, I., Hausen, H., Raasholm, M. and Thompson, E. M. (2015). Functional specialization of chordate CDK1 paralogs during oogenic meiosis. Cell Cycle 14, 880-893.
139. Pandit, S. K., Westendorp, B., Nantasanti, S., van Liere, E., Tooten, P. C. J., Cornelissen, P. W. A., Toussaint, M. J. M., Lamers, W. H. and de Bruin, A. (2012). E2F8 is essential for polyploidization in mammalian cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 14, 1181-1191.
140. Parisi, T., Beck, A. R., Rougier, N., McNeil, T., Lucian, L., Werb, Z. and Amati, B. (2003). Cyclins E1 and E2 are required for endoreplication in placental trophoblast giant cells. EMBO J. 22, 4794-4803.
141. Peart, M. J., Poyurovsky, M. V., Kass, E. M., Urist, M., Verschuren, E., Summers, M. K., Jackson, P. K. and Prives, C. (2010). APC/C(Cdc20) targets E2F1 for degradation in prometaphase. Cell Cycle 9, 3956-3964.
142. Pierce, S. B., Yost, C., Britton, J. S., Loo, L. W., Flynn, E. M., Edgar, B. A. and Eisenman, R. N. (2004). dMyc is required for larval growth and endoreplication in Drosophila. Development 131, 2317-2327.
143. Poolman, R. A., Gilchrist, R. and Brooks, G. (1998). Cell cycle profiles and expressions of p21CIP1 AND P27KIP1 during myocyte development. Int. J. Cardiol. 67, 133-142.
144. Porrello, E. R., Mahmoud, A. I., Simpson, E., Hill, J. A., Richardson, J. A., Olson, E. N. and Sadek, H. A. (2011). Transient regenerative potential of the neonatal mouse heart. Science 331, 1078-1080.
145. Qi, Q.-R., Zhao, X.-Y., Zuo, R.-J., Wang, T.-S., Gu, X.-W., Liu, J.-L. and Yang, Z.-M. (2015). Involvement of atypical transcription factor E2F8 in the polyploidization during mouse and human decidualization. Cell Cycle 14, 1842-1858.
146. Rauskolb, C., Sun, S. G., Sun, G. P., Pan, Y. W. and Irvine, K. D. (2014). Cytoskeletal tension inhibits Hippo signaling through an Ajuba-Warts complex. Cell 158, 143-156.
147. Ravid, K., Lu, J., Zimmet, J. M. and Jones, M. R. (2002). Roads to polyploidy: the megakaryocyte example. J. Cell. Physiol. 190, 7-20.
148. Reid, B. J., Barrett, M. T., Galipeau, P. C., Sanchez, C. A., Neshat, K., Cowan, D. S. and Levine, D. S. (1996). Barrett’s esophagus: Ordering the events that lead to cancer. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 5, 57-65.
149. Remus, D. and Diffley, J. F. X. (2009). Eukaryotic DNA replication control: lock and load, then fire. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 21, 771-777.
150. Ren, F., Wang, B., Yue, T., Yun, E.-Y., Ip, Y. T. and Jiang, J. (2010). Hippo signaling regulates Drosophila intestine stem cell proliferation through multiple pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107, 21064-21069.
151. Richardson, B. E., Beckett, K., Nowak, S. J. and Baylies, M. K. (2007). SCAR/WAVE and Arp2/3 are crucial for cytoskeletal remodeling at the site of myoblast fusion. Development 134, 4357-4367.
152. Riera, A., Barbon, M., Noguchi, Y., Reuter, L. M., Schneider, S. and Speck, C. (2017). From structure to mechanism-understanding initiation of DNA replication. Gene Dev. 31, 1073-1088.
153. Rios, A. C., Fu, N. Y., Jamieson, P. R., Pal, B., Whitehead, L., Nicholas, K. R., Lindeman, G. J. and Visvader, J. E. (2016). Essential role for a novel population of binucleated mammary epithelial cells in lactation. Nat. Commun. 7, e11400.
154. Ruiz-Gómez, M., Coutts, N., Price, A., Taylor, M. V. and Bate, M. (2000). Drosophila dumbfounded: a myoblast attractant essential for fusion. Cell 102, 189-198.
155. Rusch, H. P., Sachsenmaier, W., Behrens, K. and Gruter, V. (1966). Synchronization of mitosis by the fusion of the plasmodia of Physarum polycephalum. J. Cell Biol. 31, 204-209.
156. Sabelli, P. A. and Larkins, B. A. (2009). The contribution of cell cycle regulation to endosperm development. Sex. Plant Reprod. 22, 207-219.
157. Santabarbara-Ruiz, P., Lopez-Santillan, M., Martinez-Rodriguez, I., Binagui- Casas, A., Perez, L., Milan, M., Corominas, M. and Serras, F. (2015). ROSinduced JNK and p38 signaling is required for unpaired cytokine activation during Drosophila regeneration. PLoS Genet. 11, e1005595.
158. Santoni-Rugiu, E., Falck, J., Mailand, N., Bartek, J. and Lukas, J. (2000). Involvement of Myc activity in a G(1)/S-promoting mechanism parallel to the pRb/E2F pathway. Mol. Cell. Biol. 20, 3497-3509.
159. Saucedo, L. J., Gao, X., Chiarelli, D. A., Li, L., Pan, D. and Edgar, B. A. (2003). Rheb promotes cell growth as a component of the insulin/TOR signalling network. Nat. Cell Biol. 5, 566-571.
160. Sauer, K., Knoblich, J. A., Richardson, H. and Lehner, C. F. (1995). Distinct modes of cyclin E/cdc2c kinase regulation and S-phase control in mitotic and endoreduplication cycles of Drosophila embryogenesis. Genes Dev. 9, 1327-1339.
161. Schaeffer, V., Althauser, C., Shcherbata, H. R., Deng, W.-M. and Ruohola-Baker, H. (2004). Notch-dependent Fizzy-related/Hec1/Cdh1 expression is required for the mitotic-to-endocycle transition in Drosophila follicle cells. Curr. Biol. 14, 630-636.
162. Senyo, S. E., Steinhauser, M. L., Pizzimenti, C. L., Yang, V. K., Cai, L., Wang, M., Wu, T.-D., Guerquin-Kern, J.-L., Lechene, C. P. and Lee, R. T. (2013). Mammalian heart renewal by pre-existing cardiomyocytes. Nature 493, 433-436.
163. Shaw, R. L., Kohlmaier, A., Polesello, C., Veelken, C., Edgar, B. A. and Tapon, N. (2010). The Hippo pathway regulates intestinal stem cell proliferation during Drosophila adult midgut regeneration. Development 137, 4147-4158.
164. Shcherbata, H. R., Althauser, C., Findley, S. D. and Ruohola-Baker, H. (2004). The mitotic-to-endocycle switch in Drosophila follicle cells is executed by Notchdependent regulation of G1/S, G2/M and M/G1 cell-cycle transitions. Development 131, 3169-3181.
165. Sheffer, M., Bacolod, M. D., Zuk, O., Giardina, S. F., Pincas, H., Barany, F., Paty, P. B., Gerald, W. L., Notterman, D. A. and Domany, E. (2009). Association of survival and disease progression with chromosomal instability: A genomic exploration of colorectal cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 7131-7136.
166. Sher, N., Von Stetina, J. R., Bell, G.W., Matsuura, S., Ravid, K. and Orr-Weaver, T. L. (2013). Fundamental differences in endoreplication in mammals and Drosophila revealed by analysis of endocycling and endomitotic cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110, 9368-9373.
167. Shibutani, S. T., de la Cruz, A. F. A., Tran, V., Turbyfill, W. J., III, Reis, T., Edgar, B. A. and Duronio, R. J. (2008). Intrinsic negative cell cycle regulation provided by PIP box- and Cul4Cdt2-mediated destruction of E2f1 during S phase. Dev. Cell 15, 890-900.
168. Shu, Z. and Deng, W.-M. (2017). Differential Regulation of Cyclin E by Yorkie- Scalloped Signaling in Organ Development. G3 7, 1049-1060.
169. Sigrist, S. J. and Lehner, C. F. (1997). Drosophila fizzy-related down-regulates mitotic cyclins and is required for cell proliferation arrest and entry into endocycles. Cell 90, 671-681.
170. Smith, A. V. and Orr-Weaver, T. L. (1991). The regulation of the cell cycle during Drosophila embryogenesis: the transition to polyteny. Development 112, 997-1008.
171. Soonpaa, M. H. and Field, L. J. (1997). Assessment of cardiomyocyte DNA synthesis in normal and injured adult mouse hearts. Am. J. Physiol. 272, H220-H226.
172. Soonpaa, M. H., Kim, K. K., Pajak, L., Franklin, M. and Field, L. J. (1996). Cardiomyocyte DNA synthesis and binucleation during murine development. Am. J. Physiol. 271, H2183-H2189.
173. Srinivas, B. P., Woo, J., Leong, W. Y. and Roy, S. (2007). A conserved molecular pathway mediates myoblast fusion in insects and vertebrates. Nat. Genet. 39, 781-786.
174. Srivastava, D. and DeWitt, N. (2016). In vivo cellular reprogramming: the next generation. Cell 166, 1386-1396.
175. Staley, B. K. and Irvine, K. D. (2010). Warts and Yorkie mediate intestinal regeneration by influencing stem cell proliferation. Curr. Biol. 20, 1580-1587.
176. Stern, B. and Nurse, P. (1996). A quantitative model for the cdc2 control of S phase and mitosis in fission yeast. Trends Genet. 12, 345-350.
177. Storchova, Z. and Pellman, D. (2004). From polyploidy to aneuploidy, genome instability and cancer. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 5, 45-54.
178. Strunkelnberg, M., Bonengel, B., Moda, L. M., Hertenstein, A., de Couet, H. G., Ramos, R. G. and Fischbach, K. F. (2001). Rst and its paralogue kirre act redundantly during embryonic muscle development in Drosophila. Development 128, 4229-4239.
179. Sugimoto, N., Tatsumi, Y., Tsurumi, T., Matsukage, A., Kiyono, T., Nishitani, H. and Fujita, M. (2004). Cdt1 phosphorylation by cyclin A-dependent kinases negatively regulates its function without affecting geminin binding. J. Biol. Chem. 279, 19691-19697.
180. Sugimoto-Shirasu, K. and Roberts, K. (2003). “Big it up”: endoreduplication and cell-size control in plants. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 6, 544-553.
181. Sulston, J. E. and Horvitz, H. R. (1977). Post-embryonic cell lineages of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. 56, 110-156.
182. Sun, J. and Deng, W.-M. (2007). Hindsight mediates the role of notch in suppressing hedgehog signaling and cell proliferation. Dev. Cell 12, 431-442.
183. Sun, G. and Irvine, K. D. (2013). Ajuba family proteins link JNK to Hippo signaling. Sci. Signal. 6, ra81.
184. Sun, J., Smith, L., Armento, A. and Deng, W.-M. (2008). Regulation of the endocycle/gene amplification switch by Notch and ecdysone signaling. J. Cell Biol. 182, 885-896.
185. Swanson, C. I., Meserve, J. H., McCarter, P. C., Thieme, A., Mathew, T., Elston, T. C. and Duronio, R. J. (2015). Expression of an S phase-stabilized version of the CDK inhibitor Dacapo can alter endoreplication. Development 142, 4288-4298.
186. Tahiliani, M., Koh, K. P., Shen, Y. H., Pastor, W. A., Bandukwala, H., Brudno, Y., Agarwal, S., Iyer, L. M., Liu, D. R., Aravind, L. et al. (2009). Conversion of 5-Methylcytosine to 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in Mammalian DNA by MLL Partner TET1. Science 324, 930-935.
187. Tanaka, S., Kunath, T., Hadjantonakis, A. K., Nagy, A. and Rossant, J. (1998). Promotion of trophoblast stem cell proliferation by FGF4. Science 282, 2072-2075.
188. Tane, S., Ikenishi, A., Okayama, H., Iwamoto, N., Nakayama, K. I. and Takeuchi, T. (2014a). CDK inhibitors, p21(Cip1) and p27(Kip1), participate in cell cycle exit of mammalian cardiomyocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 443, 1105-1109.
189. Tane, S., Kubota, M., Okayama, H., Ikenishi, A., Yoshitome, S., Iwamoto, N., Satoh, Y., Kusakabe, A., Ogawa, S., Kanai, A. et al. (2014b). Repression of cyclin D1 expression is necessary for the maintenance of cell cycle exit in adult mammalian cardiomyocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 289, 18033-18044.
190. Trakala, M., Rodríguez-Acebes, S., Maroto, M., Symonds, C. E., Santamaría, D., Ortega, S., Barbacid, M., Méndez, J. and Malumbres, M. (2015). Functional reprogramming of polyploidization in megakaryocytes. Dev. Cell 32, 155-167.
191. Tsai, C.-R., Anderson, A. E., Burra, S., Jo, J. and Galko, M. J. (2017). Yorkie regulates epidermal wound healing in Drosophila larvae independently of cell proliferation and apoptosis. Dev. Biol. 427, 61-71.
192. Tzahor, E. and Poss, K. D. (2017). Cardiac regeneration strategies: staying young at heart. Science 356, 1035-1039.
193. Udan, R. S., Kango-Singh, M., Nolo, R., Tao, C. and Halder, G. (2003). Hippo promotes proliferation arrest and apoptosis in the Salvador/Warts pathway. Nat. Cell Biol. 5, 914-920.
194. Ullah, Z., Kohn, M. J., Yagi, R., Vassilev, L. T. and DePamphilis, M. L. (2008). Differentiation of trophoblast stem cells into giant cells is triggered by p57/Kip2 inhibition of CDK1 activity. Genes Dev. 22, 3024-3036.
195. Ullah, Z., de Renty, C. and DePamphilis, M. L. (2011). Checkpoint kinase 1 prevents cell cycle exit linked to terminal cell differentiation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 31, 4129-4143.
196. Unhavaithaya, Y. and Orr-Weaver, T. L. (2012). Polyploidization of glia in neural development links tissue growth to blood-brain barrier integrity. Genes Dev. 26, 31-36.
197. van den Eijnde, S. M., van den Hoff, M. J., Reutelingsperger, C. P., van Heerde, W. L., Henfling, M. E., Vermeij-Keers, C., Schutte, B., Borgers, M. and Ramaekers, F. C. (2001). Transient expression of phosphatidylserine at cell-cell contact areas is required for myotube formation. J. Cell Sci. 114, 3631-3642.
198. van den Heuvel, S. and Dyson, N. J. (2008). Conserved functions of the pRB and E2F families. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 9, 713-724.
199. Varelas, X., Samavarchi-Tehrani, P., Narimatsu, M., Weiss, A., Cockburn, K., Larsen, B. G., Rossant, J. and Wrana, J. L. (2010). The Crumbs complex couples cell density sensing to Hippo-dependent control of the TGF-beta-SMAD pathway. Dev. Cell 19, 831-844.
200. Vargas-Rondon, N., Villegas, V. E. and Rondon-Lagos, M. (2018). The Role of Chromosomal Instability in Cancer and Therapeutic Responses. Cancers 10.
201. Verboon, J. M. and Parkhurst, S. M. (2015). Rho family GTPase functions in Drosophila epithelial wound repair. Small GTPases 6, 28-35.
202. Von Stetina, J. R., Frawley, L. E., Unhavaithaya, Y. and Orr-Weaver, T. L. (2018). Variant cell cycles regulated by Notch signaling control cell size and ensure a functional blood-brain barrier. Development 145, dev157115.
203. Walther, A., Houlston, R. and Tomlinson, I. (2008). Association between chromosomal instability and prognosis in colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Gut 57, 941-950.
204. Wang, M.-J., Chen, F., Li, J.-X., Liu, C.-C., Zhang, H.-B., Xia, Y., Yu, B., You, P., Xiang, D., Lu, L. et al. (2014). Reversal of hepatocyte senescence after continuous in vivo cell proliferation. Hepatology 60, 349-361.
205. Wang, Y., Antunes, M., Anderson, A. E., Kadrmas, J. L., Jacinto, A. and Galko, M. J. (2015). Integrin adhesions suppress syncytium formation in the Drosophila larval epidermis. Curr. Biol. 25, 2215-2227.
206. Wang, M.-J., Chen, F., Lau, J. T. Y. and Hu, Y.-P. (2017). Hepatocyte polyploidization and its association with pathophysiological processes. Cell Death Dis. 8, e2805.
207. Weaver, B. A. A. and Cleveland, D. W. (2006). Does aneuploidy cause cancer? Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 18, 658-667.
208. Weigmann, K., Cohen, S. M. and Lehner, C. F. (1997). Cell cycle progression, growth and patterning in imaginal discs despite inhibition of cell division after inactivation of Drosophila Cdc2 kinase. Development 124, 3555-3563.
209. Weiss, A., Herzig, A., Jacobs, H. and Lehner, C. F. (1998). Continuous Cyclin E expression inhibits progression through endoreduplication cycles in Drosophila. Curr. Biol. 8, 239-242.
210. Wenzel, P. L., Wu, L., de Bruin, A., Chong, J.-L., Chen, W.-Y., Dureska, G., Sites, E., Pan, T., Sharma, A., Huang, K. et al. (2007). Rb is critical in a mammalian tissue stem cell population. Genes Dev. 21, 85-97.
211. White, M. J. D. (1937). The Chromosomes. New York: Chemical Pub. Co.
212. White, M. J. D. (1973a). Animal Cytology and Evolution, 3rd edn. Cambridge, UK: University Press.
213. White, M. J. D. (1973b). The Chromosomes, 6th edn. London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
214. Wong, J. V., Dong, P., Nevins, J. R., Mathey-Prevot, B. and You, L. (2011). Network calisthenics: control of E2F dynamics in cell cycle entry. Cell Cycle 10, 3086-3094.
215. Xiang, J., Bandura, J., Zhang, P., Jin, Y., Reuter, H. and Edgar, B. A. (2017). EGFR-dependent TOR-independent endocycles support Drosophila gut epithelial regeneration. Nat. Commun. 8, 15125.
216. Xing, L., Xiu, Y. and Boyce, B. F. (2012). Osteoclast fusion and regulation by RANKL-dependent and independent factors. World J. Orthop. 3, 212-222.
217. Yin, L. H., Gater, S. T. and Karrer, K. M. (2010). A developmentally regulated gene, ASI2, is required for endocycling in the macronuclear anlagen of tetrahymena. Eukaryot. Cell 9, 1343-1353.
218. Yuan, Z. N., Riera, A., Bai, L., Sun, J. C., Nandi, S., Spanos, C., Chen, Z. A., Barbon, M., Rappsilber, J., Stillman, B. et al. (2017). Structural basis of Mcm2-7 replicative helicase loading by ORC-Cdc6 and Cdt1. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 24, 316.
219. Zegerman, P. and Diffley, J. F. X. (2007). Phosphorylation of Sld2 and Sld3 by cyclin-dependent kinases promotes DNA replication in budding yeast. Nature 445, 281-285.
220. Zhang, B., Mehrotra, S., Ng, W. L. and Calvi, B. R. (2014). Low levels of p53 protein and chromatin silencing of p53 target genes repress apoptosis in Drosophila endocycling cells. PLoS Genet. 10, e1004581.
221. Zhang, S., Chen, Q., Liu, Q., Li, Y., Sun, X., Hong, L., Ji, S., Liu, C., Geng, J., Zhang, W. et al. (2017). Hippo signaling suppresses cell ploidy and tumorigenesis through Skp2. Cancer Cell 31, e669-e684.7.
222. Zhang, S., Zhou, K., Luo, X., Li, L., Tu, H. C., Sehgal, A., Nguyen, L. H., Zhang, Y., Gopal, P., Tarlow, B. D. et al. (2018). The polyploid state plays a tumor-suppressive role in the liver. Dev. Cell 44, 447-459, e445.
223. Zhao, B., Li, L., Wang, L., Wang, C.-Y., Yu, J. and Guan, K.-L. (2012). Cell detachment activates the Hippo pathway via cytoskeleton reorganization to induce anoikis. Genes Dev. 26, 54-68.
224. Zhou, J., Edgar, B. A. and Boutros, M. (2017). ATF3 acts as a rheostat to control JNK signalling during intestinal regeneration. Nat. Commun. 8, 14289.
225. Zhurinsky, J., Leonhard, K., Watt, S., Marguerat, S., Bähler, J. and Nurse, P. (2010). A coordinated global control over cellular transcription. Curr. Biol. 20, 2010-2015.
226. Zielke, N., Querings, S., Rottig, C., Lehner, C. and Sprenger, F. (2008). The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is required for rereplication control in endoreplication cycles. Genes Dev. 22, 1690-1703.
227. Zielke, N., Kim, K. J., Tran, V., Shibutani, S. T., Bravo, M.-J., Nagarajan, S., van Straaten, M., Woods, B., von Dassow, G., Rottig, C. et al. (2011). Control of Drosophila endocycles by E2F and CRL4(CDT2). Nature 480, 123-127.
228. Zielke, N., Edgar, B. A. and DePamphilis, M. L. (2013). Endoreplication. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 5, a012948.