Diet, gut microbiome and epigenetics: Emerging links with inflammatory bowel diseases and prospects for management and prevention

Nutrients

Volumn 9, Issue 9, 2017, Pages 1-13

  Aleksandrova, Krasimira ^a   Romero Mosquera, Beatriz ^b   Hernandez, Vicent ^b  

^a GERMAN INSTITUTE OF HUMAN NUTRITION   (Germany)

^b Institute of Health Research Galicia Sur IISGS   (Spain)

Author keywords

Diet; Epigenetics; Gut microbiota; Inflammatory bowel diseases

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; DISACCHARIDE; FOLIC ACID; INTERLEUKIN 18; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; IRON; MANGANESE; MESALAZINE; MONOSACCHARIDE; OLIGOSACCHARIDE; POLYOL; PROBIOTIC AGENT; RETINOL; SELENIUM; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; VITAMIN D; ZINC;

BACTERIAL IMMUNITY; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CROHN DISEASE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY INTAKE; DNA METHYLATION; DRUG EFFICACY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE; INTESTINE FLORA; MEDITERRANEAN DIET; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PATHOGENESIS; PREVENTION AND CONTROL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; ULCERATIVE COLITIS; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; DIET; GENETICS; MICROBIOLOGY;

DIET; EPIGENOMICS; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASES;

EID: 85029173805     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu9090962     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Russell, R.K.; Satsangi, J. IBD: A family affair. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2004, 18, 525-539.
2. Zanello, G.; Kevans, D.; Goethel, A.; Silverberg, M.; Tyler, A.; Croitoru, K. Genetics and innate and adaptive immunity in IBD. Nestle Nutr. Inst. Workshop Ser. 2014, 79, 41-55.
3. Van Limbergen, J.; Radford-Smith, G.; Satsangi, J. Advances in IBD genetics. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2014, 11, 372-385.
4. Tamboli, C.P. How do genetics help an understanding of IBD epidemiology? Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2008, 14, S29-S30.
5. Danese, S.; Fiocchi, C. Etiopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases. World J. Gastroenterol. 2006, 12, 4807-4812.
6. Kostic, A.D.; Xavier, R.J.; Gevers, D. The microbiome in inflammatory bowel disease: Current status and the future ahead. Gastroenterology 2014, 146, 1489-1499.
7. Lee, D.; Albenberg, L.; Compher, C.; Baldassano, R.; Piccoli, D.; Lewis, J.D.; Wu, G.D. Diet in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastroenterology 2015, 148, 1087-1106.
8. Lovasz, B.D.; Golovics, P.A.; Vegh, Z.; Lakatos, P.L. New trends in inflammatory bowel disease epidemiology and disease course in eastern europe. Dig. Liver Dis. 2013, 45, 269-276.
9. Malekzadeh, M.M.; Vahedi, H.; Gohari, K.; Mehdipour, P.; Sepanlou, S.G.; Daryani, N.E.; Zali, M.R.; Mansour-Ghanaei, F.; Safarpour, A.R.; Aghazadeh, R.; et al. Emerging epidemic of inflammatory bowel disease in a middle income country: A nation-wide study from Iran. Arch. Iran. Med. 2016, 19, 2-15.
10. Molodecky, N.A.; Soon, I.S.; Rabi, D.M.; Ghali, W.A.; Ferris, M.; Chernoff, G.; Benchimol, E.I.; Panaccione, R.; Ghosh, S.; Barkema, H.W.; et al. Increasing incidence and prevalence of the inflammatory bowel diseases with time, based on systematic review. Gastroenterol. 2012, 142, 46-54.
11. Fernández, A.; Hernández, V.; Martínez-Ares, D.; Sanromán, L.; de Castro, M.L.; Pineda, J.R.; Carmona, A.; González-Portela, C.; Salgado, C.; Martínez-Cadilla, J.; et al. Incidence and phenotype at diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease. Results in Spain of the EpiCom study. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2015, 38, 534-540.
12. Lophaven, S.N.; Lynge, E.; Burisch, J. The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease in Denmark 1980-2013: A nationwide cohort study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2017, 45, 961-972.
13. Shivashankar, R.; Tremaine, W.J.; Harmsen, W.S.; Loftus, E.V. Incidence and prevalence of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis in Olmsted county, Minnesota from 1970 through 2010. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017, 15, 857-863.
14. Ng, S.C.; Tang, W.; Ching, J.Y.; Wong, M.; Chow, C.M.; Hui, A.J.; Wong, T.C.; Leung, V.K.; Tsang, S.W.; Yu, H.H.; et al. Incidence and phenotype of inflammatory bowel disease based on results from the Asia-Pacific Crohn’s and Colitis Epidemiology Study. Gastroenterol. 2013, 145, 158-165.
15. Kaplan, G.G. The global burden of IBD: From 2015 to 2025. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2015, 12, 720-727.
16. Saro Gismera, C. ¿Por qué está aumentando la incidencia de la EIIC? Enferm. Inflam. Intest. Al Día 2010, 9, 139-149.
17. Rogler, G.; Vavricka, S. Exposome in IBD: Recent insights in environmental factors that influence the onset and course of IBD. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2015, 21, 400-408.
18. Gearry, R.B. IBD and environment: Are there differences between east and west. Digest. Dis. 2016, 34, 84-89.
19. Molodecky, N.A.; Panaccione, R.; Ghosh, S.; Barkema, H.W.; Kaplan, G.G.; Alberta Inflammatory Bowel Disease Consortium. Challenges associated with identifying the environmental determinants of the inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2011, 17, 1792-1799.
20. O’hara, A.M.; Shanahan, F. The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep. 2006, 7, 688-693.
21. Arumugam, M.; Raes, J.; Pelletier, E.; Le Paslier, D.; Yamada, T.; Mende, D.R.; Fernandes, G.R.; Tap, J.; Bruls, T.; Batto, J.-M.; et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 2011, 473, 174-180.
22. Roager, H.M.; Licht, T.R.; Poulsen, S.K.; Larsen, T.M.; Bahl, M.I. Microbial enterotypes, inferred by the prevotella-to-bacteroides ratio, remained stable during a 6-month randomized controlled diet intervention with the new nordic diet. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2014, 80, 1142-1149.
23. Wu, G.D.; Chen, J.; Hoffmann, C.; Bittinger, K.; Chen, Y.-Y.; Keilbaugh, S.A.; Bewtra, M.; Knights, D.; Walters, W.A.; Knight, R.; et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 2011, 334, 105-108.
24. Prosberg, M.; Bendtsen, F.; Vind, I.; Petersen, A.M.; Gluud, L.L. The association between the gut microbiota and the inflammatory bowel disease activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2016, 51, 1407-1415.
25. Wills, E.S.; Jonkers, D.M.A.E.; Savelkoul, P.H.; Masclee, A.A.; Pierik, M.J.; Penders, J. Fecal microbial composition of ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease patients in remission and subsequent exacerbation. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e90981.
26. Varela, E.; Manichanh, C.; Gallart, M.; Torrejón, A.; Borruel, N.; Casellas, F.; Guarner, F.; Antolin, M. Colonisation by Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and maintenance of clinical remission in patients with ulcerative colitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2013, 38, 151-161.
27. Dominguez-Bello, M.G.; Costello, E.K.; Contreras, M.; Magris, M.; Hidalgo, G.; Fierer, N.; Knight, R. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 11971-11975.
28. Malavia, D.; Crawford, A.; Wilson, D. Nutritional immunity and fungal pathogenesis: The struggle for micronutrients at the host-pathogen interface. Adv. Microb. Phys. 2017, 70, 85-103.
29. Benoit, B.; Bruno, J.; Kayal, F.; Estienne, M.; Debard, C.; Ducroc, R.; Plaisancie, P. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differently modulate colonic goblet cells in vitro and in rat pups. J. Nutr. 2015, 145, 1754-1762.
30. Devkota, S.; Wang, Y.; Musch, M.W.; Leone, V.; Fehlner-Peach, H.; Nadimpalli, A.; Antonopoulos, D.A.; Jabri, B.; Chang, E.B. Dietary-fat-induced taurocholic acid promotes pathobiont expansion and colitis in IL10−/− mice. Nature 2012, 487, 104-108.
31. Brandsma, E.; Houben, T.; Fu, J.; Shiri-Sverdlov, R.; Hofker, M.H. The immunity-diet-microbiota axis in the development of metabolic syndrome. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 2015, 26, 73-81.
32. Brown, K.; DeCoffe, D.; Molcan, E.; Gibson, D.L. Diet-induced dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota and the effects on immunity and disease. Nutr. 2012, 4, 1095-1119.
33. Simpson, H.L.; Campbell, B.J.; Rhodes, J.M. IBD: Microbiota manipulation through diet and modified bacteria. Digest. Dis. 2014, 32, 18-25.
34. Sinagra, E.; Tomasello, G.; Cappello, F.; Leone, A.; Cottone, M.; Bellavia, M.; Rossi, F.; Facella, T.; Damiani, P.; Zeenny, M.N.; et al. Probiotics, prebiotics and symbiotics in inflammatory bowel diseases: State-of-the-art and new insights. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents 2013, 27, 919-933.
35. Scaldaferri, F.; Gerardi, V.; Lopetuso, L.R.; Del Zompo, F.; Mangiola, F.; Boskoski, I.; Bruno, G.; Petito, V.; Laterza, L.; Cammarota, G.; et al. Gut microbial flora, prebiotics, and probiotics in IBD: Their current usage and utility. BioMed Res. Int. 2013, 2013, 435268.
36. Macia, L.; Tan, J.; Vieira, A.T.; Leach, K.; Stanley, D.; Luong, S.; Maruya, M.; Ian McKenzie, C.; Hijikata, A.; Wong, C.; et al. Metabolite-sensing receptors GPR43 and GPR109A facilitate dietary fibre-induced gut homeostasis through regulation of the inflammasome. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 6734.
37. Laurell, A.; Sjoberg, K. Prebiotics and synbiotics in ulcerative colitis. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2017, 52, 477-485.
38. Hidalgo-Cantabrana, C.; Delgado, S.; Ruiz, L.; Ruas-Madiedo, P.; Sanchez, B.; Margolles, A. Bifidobacteria and their health-promoting effects. Microbiol. Spectr. 2017, 5. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.BAD-0010-2016.
39. Lorea Baroja, M.; Kirjavainen, P.V.; Hekmat, S.; Reid, G. Anti-inflammatory effects of probiotic yogurt in inflammatory bowel disease patients. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2007, 149, 470-479.
40. Derwa, Y.; Gracie, D.J.; Hamlin, P.J.; Ford, A.C. Systematic review with meta-analysis: The efficacy of probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2017, 46, 389-400.
41. Bjelakovic, G.; Nikolova, D.; Gluud, L.L.; Simonetti, R.G.; Gluud, C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007, 297, 842-857.
42. Scarpa, M.; Stylianou, E. Epigenetics: Concepts and relevance to IBD pathogenesis. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2012, 18, 1982-1996.
43. Ventham, N.T.; Kennedy, N.A.; Nimmo, E.R.; Satsangi, J. Beyond gene discovery in inflammatory bowel disease: The emerging role of epigenetics. Gastroenterol. 2013, 145, 293-308.
44. Anderson, C.A.; Boucher, G.; Lees, C.W.; Franke, A.; D’Amato, M.; Taylor, K.D.; Lee, J.C.; Goyette, P.; Imielinski, M.; Latiano, A.; et al. Meta-analysis identifies 29 additional ulcerative colitis risk loci, increasing the number of confirmed associations to 47. Nat. Genet. 2011, 43, 246-252.
45. Beaudet, A.L. Epigenetics and complex human disease: Is there a role in IBD? J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2008, 46, E2.
46. Dabritz, J.; Menheniott, T.R. Linking immunity, epigenetics, and cancer in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2014, 20, 1638-1654.
47. Chapman, C.G.; Pekow, J. The emerging role of mirnas in inflammatory bowel disease: A review. Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol. 2015, 8, 4-22.
48. Kalla, R.; Ventham, N.T.; Kennedy, N.A.; Quintana, J.F.; Nimmo, E.R.; Buck, A.H.; Satsangi, J. MicroRNAs: New players in IBD. Gut 2015, 64, 504-517.
49. Harris, R.A.; Nagy-Szakal, D.; Pedersen, N.; Opekun, A.; Bronsky, J.; Munkholm, P.; Jespersgaard, C.; Andersen, P.; Melegh, B.; Ferry, G.; et al. Genome-wide peripheral blood leukocyte DNA methylation microarrays identified a single association with inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2012, 18, 2334-2341.
50. Bouma, G.; Xia, B.; Crusius, J.B.; Bioque, G.; Koutroubakis, I.; Von Blomberg, B.M.; Meuwissen, S.G.; Pena, A.S. Distribution of four polymorphisms in the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) genes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1996, 103, 391-396.
51. Dionne, S.; Hiscott, J.; D’Agata, I.; Duhaime, A.; Seidman, E.G. Quantitative PCR analysis of TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta mRNA levels in pediatric IBD mucosal biopsies. Digest. Dis. Sci. 1997, 42, 1557-1566.
52. Greenberg, G.R. Bugs, TNF-alpha and IBD: More fuel for the fire. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 2002, 16, 127-128.
53. Ludwiczek, O.; Kaser, A.; Novick, D.; Dinarello, C.A.; Rubinstein, M.; Tilg, H. Elevated systemic levels of free interleukin-18 (IL-18) in patients with Crohn’s disease. Eur. Cytokine Netw. 2005, 16, 27-33.
54. Tighe, D.; Hall, B.; Jeyarajah, S.K.; Smith, S.; Breslin, N.; Ryan, B.; McNamara, D. One-year clinical outcomes in an IBD cohort who have previously had anti-TNFα trough and antibody levels assessed. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2017, 23, 1154-1159.
55. Mochizuki, K.; Hariya, N.; Honma, K.; Goda, T. Relationship between epigenetic regulation, dietary habits, and the developmental origins of health and disease theory. Congenit. Anom. 2017. doi:10.1111/cga.12213.
56. Burdge, G.C.; Hoile, S.P.; Lillycrop, K.A. Epigenetics: Are there implications for personalised nutrition? Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 2012, 15, 442-447.
57. Remely, M.; Lovrecic, L.; de la Garza, A.L.; Migliore, L.; Peterlin, B.; Milagro, F.I.; Martinez, A.J.; Haslberger, A.G. Therapeutic perspectives of epigenetically active nutrients. Br. J. Pharm. 2015, 172, 2756-2768.
58. Reuter, S.; Gupta, S.C.; Park, B.; Goel, A.; Aggarwal, B.B. Epigenetic changes induced by curcumin and other natural compounds. Genes Nutr. 2011, 6, 93-108.
59. Anderson, O.S.; Sant, K.E.; Dolinoy, D.C. Nutrition and epigenetics: An interplay of dietary methyl donors, one-carbon metabolism and DNA methylation. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2012, 23, 853-859.
60. Philpott, M.; Ferguson, L.R. Immunonutrition and cancer. Mutat. Res. 2004, 551, 29-42.
61. Saita, D.; Ferrarese, R.; Foglieni, C.; Esposito, A.; Canu, T.; Perani, L.; Ceresola, E.R.; Visconti, L.; Burioni, R.; Clementi, M.; et al. Adaptive immunity against gut microbiota enhances apoE-mediated immune regulation and reduces atherosclerosis and western-diet-related inflammation. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 29353.
62. Krautkramer, K.A.; Kreznar, J.H.; Romano, K.A.; Vivas, E.I.; Barrett-Wilt, G.A.; Rabaglia, M.E.; Keller, M.P.; Attie, A.D.; Rey, F.E.; Denu, J.M. Diet-microbiota interactions mediate global epigenetic programming in multiple host tissues. Mol. Cell 2016, 64, 982-992.
63. Eeckhaut, V.; Ducatelle, R.; Sas, B.; Vermeire, S.; Van Immerseel, F. Progress towards butyrate-producing pharmabiotics: Butyricicoccus pullicaecorum capsule and efficacy in TNBS models in comparison with therapeutics. Gut 2014, 63, 367.
64. Myles, I.A. Fast food fever: Reviewing the impacts of the western diet on immunity. Nutr. J. 2014, 13, 61.
65. Andersen, V.; Hansen, A.K.; Heitmann, B.L. Potential impact of diet on treatment effect from anti-TNF drugs in inflammatory bowel disease. Nutr. 2017, 9. doi:10.3390/nu9030286.
66. Erickson, K.L.; Medina, E.A.; Hubbard, N.E. Micronutrients and innate immunity. J. Infect. Dis. 2000, 182, S5-S10.
67. Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb, Y.B.; Varvara, G.; Murmura, G.; Saggini, A.; Caraffa, A.; Antinolfi, P.; Tete, S.; Tripodi, D.; Conti, F.; Cianchetti, E.; et al. Role of vitamins D, E and C in immunity and inflammation. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents 2013, 27, 291-295.
68. Jorgensen, S.P.; Agnholt, J.; Glerup, H.; Lyhne, S.; Villadsen, G.E.; Hvas, C.L.; Bartels, L.E.; Kelsen, J.; Christensen, L.A.; Dahlerup, J.F. Clinical trial: Vitamin D3 treatment in Crohn’s disease—A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2010, 32, 377-383.
69. Dadaei, T.; Safapoor, M.H.; Asadzadeh Aghdaei, H.; Balaii, H.; Pourhoseingholi, M.A.; Naderi, N.; Zojaji, H.; Azimzadeh, P.; Mohammadi, P.; Zali, M.R. Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on TNF-alpha serum level and disease activity index in iranian IBD patients. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Bed Bench 2015, 8, 49-55.
70. Crawford, A.; Wilson, D. Essential metals at the host-pathogen interface: Nutritional immunity and micronutrient assimilation by human fungal pathogens. FEMS Yeast Res. 2015, 15, fov071.
71. Huang, Z.; Rose, A.H.; Hoffmann, P.R. The role of selenium in inflammation and immunity: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2012, 16, 705-743.
72. Seril, D.N.; Liao, J.; West, A.B.; Yang, G.Y. High-iron diet: Foe or feat in ulcerative colitis and ulcerative colitis-associated carcinogenesis. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2006, 40, 391-397.
73. Seril, D.N.; Liao, J.; Ho, K.L.; Warsi, A.; Yang, C.S.; Yang, G.Y. Dietary iron supplementation enhances dss-induced colitis and associated colorectal carcinoma development in mice. Digest. Dis. Sci. 2002, 47, 1266-1278.
74. Bayer, J.; Gomer, A.; Demir, Y.; Amano, H.; Kish, D.D.; Fairchild, R.; Heeger, P.S. Effects of green tea polyphenols on murine transplant-reactive t cell immunity. Clin. Immunol. 2004, 110, 100-108.
75. Kuo, C.L.; Chen, T.S.; Liou, S.Y.; Hsieh, C.C. Immunomodulatory effects of EGCG fraction of green tea extract in innate and adaptive immunity via T regulatory cells in murine model. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2014, 36, 364-370.
76. Santilli, G.; Anderson, J.; Thrasher, A.J.; Sala, A. Catechins and antitumor immunity: Not MDSC’s cup of tea. Oncoimmunology 2013, 2, e24443.
77. Balan, B.J.; Sokolnicka, I.; Skopinska-Rozewska, E.; Skopinski, P. The modulatory influence of some Echinacea-based remedies on antibody production and cellular immunity in mice. Cent.-Eur. J. Immunol. 2016, 41, 12-18.
78. Barbour, E.K.; Assi, C.A.; Shaib, H.; Hamadeh, S.; Murtada, M.; Mahmoud, G.; Yaghmoor, S.; Iyer, A.; Harakeh, S.; Kumosani, T. Evaluation of a Salmonella enteritidis vaccine and related ELISA for respective induction and assessment of acquired immunity to the vaccine and/or Echinacea purpurea in Awassi Ewes. Vaccine 2015, 33, 2228-2231.
79. Hall, H.; Fahlman, M.M.; Engels, H.J. Echinacea purpurea and mucosal immunity. Int. J. Sports Med. 2007, 28, 792-797.
80. Yamamoto, T.; Nakahigashi, M.; Saniabadi, A.R. Review article: Diet and inflammatory bowel disease—Epidemiology and treatment. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2009, 30, 99-112.
81. Richman, E.; Rhodes, J.M. Review article: Evidence-based dietary advice for patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2013, 38, 1156-1171.
82. Brown, A.C.; Rampertab, S.D.; Mullin, G.E. Existing dietary guidelines for Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2011, 5, 411-425.
83. Spooren, C.E.; Pierik, M.J.; Zeegers, M.P.; Feskens, E.J.; Masclee, A.A.; Jonkers, D.M. Review article: The association of diet with onset and relapse in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2013, 38, 1172-1187.
84. Burisch, J.; Pedersen, N.; Cukovic-Cavka, S.; Turk, N.; Kaimakliotis, I.; Duricova, D.; Bortlik, M.; Shonova, O.; Vind, I.; Avnstrom, S.; et al. Environmental factors in a population-based inception cohort of inflammatory bowel disease patients in Europe—An ECCO-EpiCom study. J. Crohn’s Colitis 2014, 8, 607-616.
85. Ruemmele, F.M.; Veres, G.; Kolho, K.L.; Griffiths, A.; Levine, A.; Escher, J.C.; Amil Dias, J.; Barabino, A.; Braegger, C.P.; Bronsky, J.; et al. Consensus guidelines of ECCO/ESPGHANn on the medical management of pediatric Crohn’s disease. J. Crohn’s Colitis 2014, 8, 1179-1207.
86. Jones, V.A. Comparison of total parenteral nutrition and elemental diet in induction of remission of Crohn’s disease. Long-term maintenance of remission by personalized food exclusion diets. Digest. Dis. Sci. 1987, 32, 100S-107S.
87. Nieves, R.; Jackson, R.T. Specific carbohydrate diet in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Tenn. Med. 2004, 97, 407.
88. Olendzki, B.C.; Silverstein, T.D.; Persuitte, G.M.; Ma, Y.; Baldwin, K.R.; Cave, D. An anti-inflammatory diet as treatment for inflammatory bowel disease: A case series report. Nutr. J. 2014, 13, 5.
89. Suskind, D.L.; Wahbeh, G.; Gregory, N.; Vendettuoli, H.; Christie, D. Nutritional therapy in pediatric Crohn disease: The specific carbohydrate diet. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2014, 58, 87-91.
90. Kakodkar, S.; Farooqui, A.J.; Mikolaitis, S.L.; Mutlu, E.A. The specific carbohydrate diet for inflammatory bowel disease: A case series. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2015, 115, 1226-1232.
91. Zhan, Y.L.; Zhan, Y.A.; Dai, S.X. Is a low FODMAP diet beneficial for patients with inflammatory bowel disease? A meta-analysis and systematic review. Clin. Nutr. 2017. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2017.05.019.
92. Eichelmann, F.; Schwingshackl, L.; Fedirko, V.; Aleksandrova, K. Effect of plant-based diets on obesity-related inflammatory profiles: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention trials. Obes. Rev. 2016, 17, 1067-1079.
93. Arpon, A.; Riezu-Boj, J.I.; Milagro, F.I.; Razquin, C.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Corella, D.; Estruch, R.; Casas, R.; Fito, M.; Ros, E.; et al. Adherence to Mediterranean diet is associated with methylation changes in inflammation-related genes in peripheral blood cells. J. Phys. Biochem. 2017, 73, 455. doi:10.1007/s13105-017-0552-6.
94. Marlow, G.; Ellett, S.; Ferguson, I.R.; Zhu, S.; Karunasinghe, N.; Jesuthasan, A.C.; Han, D.Y.; Fraser, A.G.; Ferguson, L.R. Transcriptomics to study the effect of a Mediterranean-inspired diet on inflammation in Crohn’s disease patients. Hum. Genom. 2013, 7, 24.
95. Chiba, M.; Abe, T.; Tsuda, H.; Sugawara, T.; Tsuda, S.; Tozawa, H.; Fujiwara, K.; Imai, H. Lifestyle-related disease in Crohn’s disease: Relapse prevention by a semi-vegetarian diet. World J. Gastroenterol. 2010, 16, 2484-2495.
96. Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation. Available online: http://www.crohnscolitisfoundation.org/science-and-professionals/research/current-research-studies/microbiome-initiative.html (accessed on 14 august 2017).
97. The Gem Project. Available online: http://www.gemproject.ca/ (accessed on 13 August 2017).
98. Predicct Study. Available online: http://www.predicct.co.uk/ (accessed on 13 August 2017).