The Role of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis

International Journal of Inflammation

Volumn 2016, Issue , 2016, Pages

  Roshan, Mohsin H K ^a   Tambo, Amos ^a   Pace, Nikolai P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MALTA   (Malta)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; OXIDIZED LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN ANTIBODY; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 9; WNT5A PROTEIN;

ARTERIAL SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CPG ISLAND; CYTOKINE RELEASE; CYTOTOXICITY; ENZYME ACTIVATION; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; MACROPHAGE; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; PROTEIN POLYMORPHISM; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TH2 CELL;

EID: 84992402780     PISSN: 20908040     EISSN: 20420099     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2016/1532832     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. P. Libby, P. M. Ridker, and A. Maseri, "Inflammation and atherosclerosis, " Circulation, vol. 105, no. 9, pp. 1135-1143, 2002.
2. C. A. Janeway Jr. And R. Medzhitov, "Innate immune recognition, " Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 197-216, 2002.
3. J. L. Witztum and A. H. Lichtman, "The influence of innate and adaptive immune responses on atherosclerosis, " Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, vol. 9, pp. 73-102, 2014.
4. O. Takeuchi and S. Akira, "Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation, " Cell, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 805-820, 2010.
5. B. Lemaitre, E. Nicolas, L. Michaut, J.-M. Reichhart, and J. A. Hoffmann, "The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/Toll/Cactus controls the potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults, " Cell, vol. 86, no. 6, pp. 973-983, 1996.
6. R. Medzhitov, P. Preston-Hurlburt, and C. A. Janeway Jr., "A human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein signals activation of adaptive immunity, " Nature, vol. 388, no. 6640, pp. 394-397, 1997.
7. K. Hoshino, O. Takeuchi, T. Kawai et al., "Cutting edge: Tolllike receptor 4 (TLR4)-deficient mice are hyporesponsive to lipopolysaccharide evidence for TLR4 as the Lps gene product, " Journal of Immunology, vol. 162, no. 7, pp. 3749-3752, 1999.
8. T. Kawai and S. Akira, "The roles of TLRs, RLRs and NLRs in pathogen recognition, " International Immunology, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 317-337, 2009.
9. I. Botos, D. M. Segal, andD. R. Davies, "The structural biology of Toll-like receptors, " Structure, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 447-459, 2011.
10. N. Matsushima, T. Tanaka, P. Enkhbayar et al., "Comparative sequence analysis of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) within vertebrate toll-like receptors, "BMCGenomics, vol. 8, article 124, 2007.
11. X. H. Xu, P. K. Shah, E. Faure et al., "Toll-like receptor-4 is expressed by macrophages in murine and human lipidrich atherosclerotic plaques and upregulated by oxidized LDL, " Circulation, vol. 104, no. 25, pp. 3103-3108, 2001.
12. J. E. Cole, E. Georgiou, and C. Monaco, "The expression and functions of toll-like receptors in atherosclerosis, " Mediators of Inflammation, vol. 2010, Article ID 393946, 18 pages, 2010.
13. R. Ezzahiri, F. R. M. Stassen, H. R. M. Kurvers, V. Dolmans, P. J. E. H. M. Kitslaar, and C. A. Bruggeman, "Chlamydia pneumoniae infections augment atherosclerotic lesion formation: A role for serum amyloid P, " Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica, vol. 114, no. 2, pp. 117-126, 2006.
14. L. T�rm�kangas, L. Erkkil�, T. Korhonen et al., "Effects of repeated Chlamydia pneumoniae inoculations on aortic lipid accumulation and inflammatory response in C57BL/6J mice, " Infection and Immunity, vol. 73, no. 10, pp. 6458-6466, 2005.
15. E. Blessing, L. A. Campbell, M. E. Rosenfeld, N. Chough, and C.-C. Kuo, "Chlamydia pneumoniae infection accelerateshyperlipidemia induced atherosclerotic lesion development in C57BL/6J mice, " Atherosclerosis, vol. 158, no. 1, pp. 13-17, 2001.
16. K. Aalto-Set�l�, K. Laitinen, L. Erkkil� et al., "Chlamydia pneumoniae does not increase atherosclerosis in the aortic root of apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 578-584, 2001.
17. G. Caligiuri, M. Rottenberg, A. Nicoletti, H. Wigzell, andG. K. Hansson, "Chlamydia pneumoniae infection does not induce or modify atherosclerosis in mice, " Circulation, vol. 103, no. 23, pp. 2834-2838, 2001.
18. J. Mill�n, X. Pint�, A. Mu�oz et al., "Lipoprotein ratios: physiological significance and clinical usefulness in cardiovascular prevention, " Vascular Health and Risk Management, vol. 5, pp. 757-765, 2009.
19. N. J. Stone, J. G. Robinson, A. H. Lichtenstein et al., "2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, " Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 63, no. 25, pp. 2889-2934, 2014.
20. S. Garrido-Urbani, M. Meguenani, F. Montecucco, and B. A. Imhof, "Immunological aspects of atherosclerosis, " Seminars in Immunopathology, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 73-91, 2014.
21. I. Levitan, S. Volkov, and P. V. Subbaiah, "Oxidized LDL: diversity, patterns of recognition, and pathophysiology, " Antioxidants and Redox Signaling, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 39-75, 2010.
22. M. F. Khalil, W. D. Wagner, and I. J. Goldberg, "Molecular interactions leading to lipoprotein retention and the initiation of atherosclerosis, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 24, no. 12, pp. 2211-2218, 2004.
23. P. Libby, "Changing concepts of atherogenesis, " Journal of Internal Medicine, vol. 247, no. 3, pp. 349-358, 2000.
24. G. K. Hansson, "Immune mechanisms in atherosclerosis, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 21, no. 12, pp. 1876-1890, 2001.
25. H. C. Stary, A. B. Chandler, S. Glagov et al., "A definition of initial, fatty streak, and intermediate lesions of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association, " Circulation, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 2462-2478, 1994.
26. H. C. Stary, A. B. Chandler, R. E. Dinsmore et al., "A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histological classification of atherosclerosis. A report from the committee on vascular lesions of the council on arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association, " Circulation, vol. 92, no. 5, pp. 1355-1374, 1995.
27. A. J. Lusis, "Atherosclerosis, " Nature, vol. 407, no. 6801, pp. 233-241, 2000.
28. W.-S. Lee, M. K. Jain, B. M. Arkonac et al., "Thy-1, a novel marker for angiogenesis upregulated by inflammatory cytokines, " Circulation Research, vol. 82, no. 8, pp. 845-851, 1998.
29. P. R. Moreno, K. R. Purushothaman, E. Zias, J. Sanz, and V. Fuster, "Neovascularization in human atherosclerosis, " Current Molecular Medicine, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 457-477, 2006.
30. V. Fuster, P. R. Moreno, Z. A. Fayad, R. Corti, and J. J. Badimon, "Atherothrombosis and high-risk plaque: part I: evolving concepts, " Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 937-954, 2005.
31. M. Nichols, N. Townsend, P. Scarborough, and M. Rayner, "Cardiovascular disease in Europe 2014: epidemiological update, " European Heart Journal, vol. 35, no. 42, pp. 2950-2959, 2014.
32. K. S. Reddy, "Cardiovascular disease in non-Western countries, " The New England Journal ofMedicine, vol. 350, no. 24, pp. 2438-2440, 2004.
33. J. A. Finegold, P. Asaria, and D. P. Francis, "Mortality from ischaemic heart disease by country, region, and age: statistics fromWorld Health Organisation and United Nations, " International Journal of Cardiology, vol. 168, no. 2, pp. 934-945, 2013.
34. K. Takeda and S. Akira, "TLR signaling pathways, " Seminars in Immunology, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 3-9, 2004.
35. J. Gohda, T. Matsumura, and J.-I. Inoue, "Cutting edge: TNFRassociated factor (TRAF) 6 is essential for MyD88-dependent pathway but not Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptorinducing IFN-(TRIF)-dependent pathway in TLR signaling, " Journal of Immunology, vol. 173, no. 5, pp. 2913-2917, 2004.
36. M. Muzio, J. Ni, P. Feng, and V. M. Dixit, "IRAK (Pelle) family member IRAK-2 and MyD88 as proximal mediators of IL-1 signaling, " Science, vol. 278, no. 5343, pp. 1612-1615, 1997.
37. Z. J. Chen, "Ubiquitin signalling in the NF-B pathway, " Nature Cell Biology, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 758-765, 2005.
38. C. Wang, L. Deng, M. Hong, G. R. Akkaraju, J.-I. Inoue, and Z. J. Chen, "TAK1 is a ubiquitin-dependent kinase ofMKK and IKK, " Nature, vol. 412, no. 6844, pp. 346-351, 2001.
39. S. Ghosh, M. J. May, and E. B. Kopp, "NF-B and rel proteins: evolutionarily conserved mediators of immune responses, " Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 16, pp. 225-260, 1998.
40. T. Kawasaki and T. Kawai, "Toll-like receptor signaling pathways, " Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 5, article 461, 2014.
41. M. Yamamoto, S. Sato, H. Hemmiet al., "Role of adaptor TRIF in the MyD88-independent toll-like receptor signaling pathway, " Science, vol. 301, no. 5633, pp. 640-643, 2003.
42. S. Uematsu and S. Akira, "Toll-like receptors and type I Interferons, "The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 282, no. 21, pp. 15319-15324, 2007.
43. S. J. Noppert, K. A. Fitzgerald, and P. J. Hertzog, "The role of type I interferons in TLR responses, " Immunology and Cell Biology, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 446-457, 2007.
44. C. Wang, T. Chen, J. Zhang et al., "TheE3 ubiquitin ligaseNrdp1 'preferentially' promotes TLR-mediated production of type I interferon, "Nature Immunology, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 744-752, 2009.
45. X. Liu, Z. Zhan, D. Li et al., "Intracellular MHC class II molecules promote TLR-triggered innate immune responses by maintaining activation of the kinase Btk, " Nature Immunology, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 416-424, 2011.
46. A. O. Aliprantis, R.-B. Yang, M. R. Mark et al., "Cell activation and apoptosis by bacterial lipoproteins through Toll-like receptor-2, " Science, vol. 285, no. 5428, pp. 736-739, 1999.
47. A. O. Aliprantis, R.-B. Yang, D. S. Weiss, P. Godowski, and A. Zychlinsky, "The apoptotic signaling pathway activated by Tolllike receptor-2, " The EMBO Journal, vol. 19, no. 13, pp. 3325-3336, 2000.
48. A. Ashkenazi and V. M. Dixit, "Death receptors: signaling and modulation, " Science, vol. 281, no. 5381, pp. 1305-1308, 1998.
49. L. Yu, L. Wang, and S. Chen, "Endogenous toll-like receptor ligands and their biological significance, " Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 2592-2603, 2010.
50. A. M. Piccinini andK. S. Midwood, "DAMPening inflammation by modulating TLR signalling, " Mediators of Inflammation, vol. 2010, Article ID672395, 21 pages, 2010.
51. Y. Okamura, M. Watari, E. S. Jerud et al., "The extra domain A of fibronectin activates toll-like receptor 4, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 276, no. 13, pp. 10229-10233, 2001.
52. S. T. Smiley, J. A. King, and W. W. Hancock, "Fibrinogen stimulates macrophage chemokine secretion through toll-like receptor 4, " Journal of Immunology, vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 2887-2894, 2001.
53. K. R. Taylor, K. Yamasaki, K. A. Radek et al., "Recognition of hyaluronan released in sterile injury involves a unique receptor complex dependent on toll-like receptor 4, CD44, and MD-2, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 282, no. 25, pp. 18265-18275, 2007.
54. R. M. Vabulas, P. Ahmad-Nejad, C. Da Costa et al., "Endocytosed HSP60s use toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 to activate the toll/interleukin-1 receptor signaling pathway in innate immune cells, " Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 276, no. 33, pp. 31332-31339, 2001.
55. Y. S. Bae, J. H. Lee, S. H. Choi et al., "Macrophages generate reactive oxygen species in response to minimally oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein: Toll-like receptor 4-and spleen tyrosine kinase-dependent activation of NADPH oxidase 2, " Circulation Research, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 210-218, 2009.
56. K. Ohashi, V. Burkart, S. Floh�, andH. Kolb, "Cutting edge: heat shock protein 60 is a putative endogenous ligand of the toll-like receptor-4 complex, " Journal of Immunology, vol. 164, no. 2, pp. 558-561, 2000.
57. Y. Bulut, E. Faure, L. Thomas et al., "Chlamydial heat shock protein 60 activates macrophages and endothelial cells through toll-like receptor 4 and MD2 in a MyD88-dependent pathway, " The Journal of Immunology, vol. 168, no. 3, pp. 1435-1440, 2002.
58. C. U. Prazeres da Costa, N. Wantia, C. J. Kirschning et al., "Heat shock protein 60 from Chlamydia pneumoniae elicits an unusual set of imflammatory responses via Tol-like receptor 2 and 4 in vivo, " European Journal of Immunology, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 2874-2884, 2004.
59. B. Gao and M.-F. Tsan, "Endotoxin contamination in recombinant human heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) preparation is responsible for the induction of tumor necrosis factor release by murine macrophages, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 278, no. 1, pp. 174-179, 2003.
60. M.-F. Tsan and B. Gao, "Endogenous ligands of Toll-like receptors, " Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 514-519, 2004.
61. U. Z�hringer, B. Lindner, S. Inamura, H. Heine, and C. Alexander, "TLR2-promiscuous or specific A critical reevaluation of a receptor expressing apparent broad specificity, " Immunobiology, vol. 213, no. 3-4, pp. 205-224, 2008.
62. T. H. Flo, �. Halaas, S. Torp et al., "Differential expression of toll-like receptor 2 in human cells, " Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 474-481, 2001.
63. L. Oliveira-Nascimento, P. Massari, and L. M. Wetzler, "Therole of TLR2 in infection and immunity, " Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 3, article 79, 2012.
64. K. Edfeldt, J. Swedenborg, G. K. Hansson, and Z.-Q. Yan, "Expression of toll-like receptors in human atherosclerotic lesions: A possible pathway for plaque activation, " Circulation, vol. 105, no. 10, pp. 1158-1161, 2002.
65. S. Dunzendorfer, H.-K. Lee, and P. S. Tobias, "Flow-dependent regulation of endothelial toll-like receptor 2 expression through inhibition of SP1 activity, " Circulation Research, vol. 95, no. 7, pp. 684-691, 2004.
66. A. E. Mullick, P. S. Tobias, and L. K. Curtiss, "Modulation of atherosclerosis in mice by Toll-like receptor 2, " The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 115, no. 11, pp. 3149-3156, 2005.
67. A. E. Mullick, K. Soldau, W. B. Kiosses, T. A. Bell III, P. S. Tobias, and L. K. Curtiss, "Increased endothelial expression of Tolllike receptor 2 at sites of disturbed blood flow exacerbates early atherogenic events, " Journal of ExperimentalMedicine, vol. 205, no. 2, pp. 373-383, 2008.
68. A. H. Schoneveld, M. M. Oude Nijhuis, B. Van Middelaar, J. D. Laman, D. P. V. De Kleijn, and G. Pasterkamp, "Tolllike receptor 2 stimulation induces intimal hyperplasia and atherosclerotic lesion development, " Cardiovascular Research, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 162-169, 2005.
69. G.-L. Lee, Y.-W. Chang, J.-Y. Wu et al., "TLR 2 induces vascular smoothmuscle cell migration through cAMP response element-binding protein-mediated interleukin-6 production, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 32, no. 11, pp. 2751-2760, 2012.
70. M. Madan and S. Amar, "Toll-like receptor-2 mediates diet and/or pathogen associated atherosclerosis: proteomic findings, " PLoS ONE, vol. 3, no. 9, Article ID e3204, 2008.
71. T. Shishido, N. Nozaki, H. Takahashi et al., "Central role of endogenous Toll-like receptor-2 activation in regulating inflammation, reactive oxygen species production, and subsequent neointimal formation after vascular injury, " Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 345, no. 4, pp. 1446-1453, 2006.
72. J. Favre, P. Musette, V. Douin-Echinard et al., "Toll-like receptors 2-deficient mice are protected against postischemic coronary endothelial dysfunction, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 1064-1071, 2007.
73. L. Ch�vez-S�nchez, M. G. Garza-Reyes, J. E. Espinosa-Luna, K. Ch�vez-Rueda, M. V. Legorreta-Haquet, and F. Blanco-Favela, "The role of TLR2, TLR4 and CD36 in macrophage activation and foam cell formation in response to oxLDL in humans, " Human Immunology, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 322-329, 2014.
74. K. Inoue, K.-I. Kawahara, K. K. Biswas et al., "HMGB1 expression by activated vascular smooth muscle cells in advanced human atherosclerosis plaques, " Cardiovascular Pathology, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 136-143, 2007.
75. D. Messmer, H. Yang, G. Telusma et al., "High mobility group box protein 1: An endogenous signal for dendritic cell maturation and Th1 polarization, " The Journal of Immunology, vol. 173, no. 1, pp. 307-313, 2004.
76. M. A. Christman II, D. J. Goetz, E. Dickerson et al., "Wnt5a is expressed in murine and human atherosclerotic lesions, " American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology, vol. 294, no. 6, pp. H2864-H2870, 2008.
77. P. M. Bhatt, C. J. Lewis, D. L. House et al., "Increased Wnt5a mRNA expression in advanced atherosclerotic lesions, and oxidized LDL treated human monocyte-derived macrophages, " The Open Circulation and Vascular Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-7, 2012.
78. L. Qin, R. Hu, N. Zhu et al., "The novel role and underlying mechanism ofWnt5a in regulating cellular cholesterol accumulation, " Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, vol. 41, no. 9, pp. 671-678, 2014.
79. I. Ackers, C. Szymanski, K. J. Duckett, K. McCall, and R. Malgor, "Wnt5a signaling in atherosclerosis, its effect onOxLDL uptake and foam cell differentiation, " The FASEB Journal, vol. 29, supplement 1, p. 609. 4, 2015.
80. P. M. Bhatt and R. Malgor, "Wnt5a: A player in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and other inflammatory disorders, " Atherosclerosis, vol. 237, no. 1, pp. 155-162, 2014.
81. N. J. Gay, M. F. Symmons, M. Gangloff, and C. E. Bryant, "Assembly and localization of Toll-like receptor signalling complexes, " Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 546-558, 2014.
82. H. Methe, J.-O. Kim, S. Kofler, M. Weis, M. Nabauer, and J. Koglin, "Expansion of circulating toll-like receptor 4-positive monocytes in patients with acute coronary syndrome, " Circulation, vol. 111, no. 20, pp. 2654-2661, 2005.
83. H.-L. Geng, H.-Q. Lu, L.-Z. Zhang et al., "Increased expression of Toll like receptor 4 on peripheral-blood mononuclear cells in patients with coronary arteriosclerosis disease, " Clinical and Experimental Immunology, vol. 143, no. 2, pp. 269-273, 2006.
84. M. Satoh, Y. Shimoda, C. Maesawa et al., "Activated toll-like receptor 4 in monocytes is associated with heart failure after acute myocardial infarction, " International Journal of Cardiology, vol. 109, no. 2, pp. 226-234, 2006.
85. L. D. Tapp, E. Shantsila, B. J. Wrigley, S. Montoro-Garcia, andG. Y. H. Lip, "TLR4 expression onmonocyte subsets inmyocardial infarction, " Journal of InternalMedicine, vol. 273, no. 3, pp. 294-305, 2013.
86. K. W. Howell, X. Meng, D. A. Fullerton, C. Jin, T. B. Reece, and J. C. Cleveland Jr., "Toll-like receptor 4 mediates oxidized LDLinduced macrophage differentiation to foam cells, " Journal of Surgical Research, vol. 171, no. 1, pp. e27-e31, 2011.
87. K. Yang, X. J. Zhang, L. J. Cao et al., "Toll-like receptor 4 mediates inflammatory cytokine secretion in smooth muscle cells induced by oxidized low-density lipoprotein, " PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 4, Article ID e95935, 2014.
88. Y. I. Miller, S. Viriyakosol, C. J. Binder, J. R. Feramisco, T. N. Kirkland, and J. L. Witztum, "Minimally modified LDL binds to CD14, induces macrophage spreading via TLR4/MD-2, and inhibits phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 278, no. 3, pp. 1561-1568, 2003.
89. S.-H. Choi, R. Harkewicz, J. H. Lee et al., "Lipoprotein accumulation in macrophages via toll-like receptor-4-dependent fluid phase uptake, " Circulation Research, vol. 104, no. 12, pp. 1355-1363, 2009.
90. Y. I. Miller, S.-H. Choi, P. Wiesner, and Y. S. Bae, "The SYK side of TLR4: signalling mechanisms in response to LPS and minimally oxidized LDL, " British Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 990-999, 2012.
91. H. Bj�rkbacka, V. V. Kunjathoor, K. J. Moore et al., "Reduced atherosclerosis in MyD88-null mice links elevated serum cholesterol levels to activation of innate immunity signaling pathways, " Nature Medicine, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 416-421, 2004.
92. K. S. Michelsen, M. H. Wong, P. K. Shah et al., "Lack of tolllike receptor 4 or myeloid differentiation factor 88 reduces atherosclerosis and alters plaque phenotype in mice deficient in apolipoprotein E, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 29, pp. 10679-10684, 2004.
93. M. Higashimori, J. B. Tatro, K. J. Moore, M. E. Mendelsohn, J. B. Galper, and D. Beasley, "Role of toll-like receptor 4 in intimal foam cell accumulation in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 50-57, 2011.
94. K. R. Coenen, M. L. Gruen, R. S. Lee-Young, M. J. Puglisi, D. H. Wasserman, and A. H. Hasty, "Impact of macrophage toll-like receptor 4 deficiency on macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue and the artery wall in mice, " Diabetologia, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 318-328, 2009.
95. G. Pasterkamp, A. H. Schoneveld, D. J. Hijnen et al., "Atherosclerotic arterial remodeling and the localization of macrophages and matrix metalloproteases 1, 2 and 9 in the human coronary artery, " Atherosclerosis, vol. 150, no. 2, pp. 245-253, 2000.
96. S. C. G. Hollestelle, M. R. De Vries, J. K. Van Keulen et al., "Toll-like receptor 4 is involved in outward arterial remodeling, " Circulation, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 393-398, 2004.
97. Y. Ishikawa, M. Satoh, T. Itoh, Y. Minami, Y. Takahashi, andM. Akamura, "Local expression of Toll-like receptor 4 at the site of ruptured plaques in patients with acute myocardial infarction, " Clinical Science, vol. 115, no. 3-4, pp. 133-140, 2008.
98. S. Gargiulo, P. Gamba, G. Testa et al., "Relation between TLR4/NF-B signaling pathway activation by 27-hydroxycholesterol and 4-hydroxynonenal, and atherosclerotic plaque instability, " Aging Cell, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 569-581, 2015.
99. E. W. Raines, "Theextracellular matrix can regulate vascular cell migration, proliferation, and survival: relationships to vascular disease, " International Journal of Experimental Pathology, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 173-182, 2000.
100. A. W. Orr, J. M. Sanders, M. Bevard, E. Coleman, I. J. Sarembock, and M. A. Schwartz, "The subendothelial extracellular matrix modulates NF-B activation by flow: A potential role in atherosclerosis, " The Journal of Cell Biology, vol. 169, no. 1, pp. 191-202, 2005.
101. B. V. Shekhonin, S. P. Domogatsky, G. L. Idelson, V. E. Koteliansky, andV. S. Rukosuev, "Relative distributionof fibronectinand type I, III, IV, V collagens in normal and atherosclerotic intima of human arteries, " Atherosclerosis, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 9-16, 1987.
102. E. S. White, F. E. Baralle, and A. F. Muro, "New insights into form and function of fibronectin splice variants, " Journal of Pathology, vol. 216, no. 1, pp. 1-14, 2008.
103. M. H. Tan, Z. Sun, S. L. Opitz, T. E. Schmidt, J. H. Peters, and E. L. George, "Deletion of the alternatively spliced fibronectin EIIIA domain in mice reduces atherosclerosis, " Blood, vol. 104, no. 1, pp. 11-18, 2004.
104. V. R. Babaev, F. Porro, M. F. Linton, S. Fazio, F. E. Baralle, and A. F. Muro, "Absence of regulated splicing of fibronectin EDA exon reduces atherosclerosis in mice, " Atherosclerosis, vol. 197, no. 2, pp. 534-540, 2008.
105. P. Doddapattar, C. Gandhi, P. Prakash et al., "Fibronectin splicing variants containing extra domainApromote atherosclerosis in mice through Toll-like receptor 4, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 2391-2400, 2015.
106. P. Prakash, P. P. Kulkarni, S. R. Lentz, and A. K. Chauhan, "Cellular fibronectin containing extra domain A promotes arterial thrombosis in mice through platelet Toll-like receptor 4, " Blood, vol. 125, no. 20, pp. 3164-3172, 2015.
107. H. Hemmi, O. Takeuchi, T. Kawai et al., "A Toll-like receptor recognizes bacterial DNA, " Nature, vol. 408, no. 6813, pp. 740-745, 2000.
108. A. Dalpke, J. Frank, M. Peter, and K. Heeg, "Activation of toll-like receptor 9 by DNA from different bacterial species, " Infection and Immunity, vol. 74, no. 2, pp. 940-946, 2006.
109. R. Sorrentino, S. Morello, S. Chen, E. Bonavita, and A. Pinto, "The activation of liver X receptors inhibits toll-like receptor-9-induced foam cell formation, " Journal of Cellular Physiology, vol. 223, no. 1, pp. 158-167, 2010.
110. M. Baranowski, "Biological role of liver X receptors, " Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, vol. 59, supplement 7, pp. 31-55, 2008.
111. A. Niessner, K. Sato, E. L. Chaikof, I. Colmegna, J. J. Goronzy, and C. M. Weyand, "Pathogen-sensing plasmacytoid dendritic cells stimulate cytotoxic T-cell function in the atherosclerotic plaque through interferon-, " Circulation, vol. 114, no. 23, pp. 2482-2489, 2006.
112. J.-D. Bouaziz, S. Calbo, M. Maho-Vaillant et al., "IL-10 produced by activated human B cells regulates CD4+ T-cell activation in vitro, " European Journal of Immunology, vol. 40, no. 10, pp. 2686-2691, 2010.
113. Z. Waibler, M. Anzaghe, A. Konur, S. Akira, W. M�ller, and U. Kalinke, "Excessive CpG 1668 stimulation triggers IL-10 production by cDC that inhibits IFN-responses by pDC, " European Journal of Immunology, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 3127-3137, 2008.
114. C. Koulis, Y.-C. Chen, C. Hausding et al., "Protective role for toll-like receptor-9 in the development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 516-525, 2014.
115. C. Ma, Q. Ouyang, Z. Huang et al., "Toll-like receptor 9 inactivation alleviated atherosclerotic progression and inhibited macrophage polarized to M1 phenotype in ApoE/ mice, " Disease Markers, vol. 2015, Article ID 909572, 9 pages, 2015.
116. A. O. Krogmann, E. L�sebrink, M. Steinmetz et al., "Proinflammatory stimulation of toll-like receptor 9 with high dose CpG ODN 1826 impairs endothelial regeneration and promotes atherosclerosis in mice, " PLoS ONE, vol. 11, no. 1, article e0146326, 2016.
117. H. Ait-Oufella, B. L. Salomon, S. Potteaux et al., "Natural regulatory T cells control the development of atherosclerosis in mice, " Nature Medicine, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 178-180, 2006.
118. C. Buono, C. J. Binder, G. Stavrakis, J. L. Witztum, L. H. Glimcher, and A. H. Lichtman, "T-bet deficiency reduces atherosclerosis and alters plaque antigen-specific immune responses, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 5, pp. 1596-1601, 2005.
119. K. Tse, H. Tse, J. Sidney, A. Sette, and K. Ley, "T cells in atherosclerosis, " International Immunology, vol. 25, no. 11, pp. 615-622, 2013.
120. A. C. Foks, A. H. Lichtman, and J. Kuiper, "Treating atherosclerosis with regulatory T cells, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 280-287, 2015.
121. M. Subramanian, E. Thorp, G. K. Hansson, and I. Tabas, "Treg-mediated suppression of atherosclerosis requires MYD88 signaling in DCs, "The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 179-188, 2013.
122. B. Hou, B. Reizis, and A. L. DeFranco, "Toll-like receptors activate innate and adaptive immunity by using dendritic cellintrinsic and-extrinsic mechanisms, " Immunity, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 272-282, 2008.
123. G. K. Hansson and J. Nilsson, "Vaccination against atherosclerosis Induction of atheroprotective immunity, " Seminars in Immunopathology, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 95-101, 2009.
124. S. Kiechl, E. Lorenz, M. Reindl et al., "Toll-like receptor 4 polymorphisms and atherogenesis, " The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 347, no. 3, pp. 185-192, 2002.
125. R. Labrum, S. Bevan, M. Sitzer, M. Lorenz, and H. S. Markus, "Toll receptor polymorphisms and carotid artery intima-media thickness, " Stroke, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 1179-1184, 2007.
126. N. Ameziane, T. Beillat, P. Verpillat et al., "Association of the Toll-like receptor 4 gene Asp299Gly polymorphism with acute coronary events, " Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, vol. 23, no. 12, pp. e61-e64, 2003.
127. S. M. Boekholdt, W. R. P. Agema, R. J. G. Peters et al., "Variants of toll-like receptor 4 modify the efficacy of statin therapy and the risk of cardiovascular events, " Circulation, vol. 107, no. 19, pp. 2416-2421, 2003.
128. W. Koch, P. Hoppmann, A. Pfeufer, A. Sch�mig, and A. Kastrati, "Toll-like receptor 4 gene polymorphisms and myocardial infarction: no association in a Caucasian population, " European Heart Journal, vol. 27, no. 21, pp. 2524-2529, 2006.
129. A. G. Kutikhin, A. V. Ponasenko, M. V. Khutornaya et al., "Association of TLR and TREM-1 gene polymorphisms with atherosclerosis severity in a Russian population, " Meta Gene, vol. 9, pp. 76-89, 2016.
130. T. Tahara, T. Arisawa, T. Shibata, I. Hirata, and H. Nakano, "Absence of common polymorphisms of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4): Asp299Gly, Thr399Ile in patients with gastroduodenal diseases in Japan, " Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 62-65, 2007.