Economic Costs and Benefits of Healthy Eating

Current Obesity Reports

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 225-234

  Anekwe, Tobenna D ^a   Rahkovsky, Ilya ^a  

^a ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Benefits; Costs; Food prices; Healthy diet; Healthy eating; Nutrition; Obesity

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR; COMORBIDITY; CONSUMER; COOKED FOOD; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; COST CONTROL; COST OF LIVING; DIET; EATING HABIT; FOOD QUALITY; HEALTH ECONOMICS; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INCOME; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TRANSPORT STRESS;

EID: 84979569225     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21624968     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13679-013-0064-9     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. •• Hiza HAB et al. Diet quality of Americans differs by age, sex, race/ethnicity, income, and education level. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012;113(2): 297-306. This study used the Healthy Eating Index-2005, a measure of diet quality in terms of conformance to the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, to describe the diet quality of Americans by varying sociodemographic characteristics in order to provide insight as to where diets need to improve.
2. •• U. S. Department of Agriculture and U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office; 2010. Based on the most recent scientific evidence review, this document provides information and advice for choosing a healthy eating pattern-namely, one that focuses on nutrient-dense foods and beverages, and that contributes to achieving and maintaining a healthy weight. By law, Dietary Guidelines for Americans is reviewed, updated if necessary, and published every five years. It is jointly created by the US Department of Agriculture and the US Department of Health and Human Services.
3. Christian T, Rashad I. Trends in US food prices, 1950-2007. Econ Hum Biol. 2009;7(1): 113-20.
4. Kuchler F, Stewart H. Price Trends Are Similar for Fruits, Vegetables, and Snack Foods. Economic Research Report 55. Economic Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture; 2008.
5. Lakdawalla D, Philipson T. The growth of obesity and technological change: a theoretical and empirical examination. National Bureau of Economic Research; 2002.
6. Schnepf R. Consumers and Food Price Inflation. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress; 2012.
7. Carlson A, et al. Thrifty Food Plan, 2006. Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion; 2007. CNPP-19.
8. Rose D. Food stamps, the Thrifty Food Plan, and meal preparation: the importance of the time dimension for US nutrition policy. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2007;39(4): 226-32.
9. • Davis GC, You W. The Thrifty Food Plan is not thrifty when labor cost is considered. J Nutr. 2010;140(4): 854-7. This article points out that the TFP assumes that all food is prepared at home but it does not factor in food preparation time, which leads to an underestimate of the true cost of the TFP for low-income families. The study finds that once labor is included, the TFP is not very thrifty and the mean household falls short of the TFP guidelines even with adequate monetary resources. The authors conclude that the total labor associated with the TFP should be no greater than about six hours per week if it is to work for families, and one simple and practical policy solution is to develop more labor-efficient recipes that satisfy the TFP.
10. Lopez CN, et al. Costs of Mediterranean and Western dietary patterns in a Spanish cohort and their relationship with prospective weight change. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2009.
11. Goulet J, Lamarche B, Lemieux S. A nutritional intervention promoting a Mediterranean food pattern does not affect total daily dietary cost in North American women in free-living conditions. J Nutr. 2008;138(1): 54-9.
12. Drewnowski A. The cost of US foods as related to their nutritive value. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(5): 1181-8.
13. Drewnowski A, Darmon N. The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(1): 265S-73.
14. Waterlander WE et al. Energy density, energy costs and income-how are they related? Public Health Nutr. 2010;13(10): 1599-608.
15. Maillot M et al. Nutrient-dense food groups have high energy costs: an econometric approach to nutrient profiling. J Nutr. 2007;137(7): 1815-20.
16. Lipsky LM. Are energy-dense foods really cheaper? Reexamining the relation between food price and energy density. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90(5): 1397-401.
17. Frazao E. Reply to A Drewnowski et al. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90(3): 702-3.
18. Lipsky LM et al. Fundamental misunderstanding of the relation between energy density (kcal/g) and energy cost ($/kcal). Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(4): 867.
19. •• Carlson A, Frazão E. Are healthy foods really more expensive? It depends on how you measure the price. USDA Economic Research Service; 2012. Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, the Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion food price database, and the USDA Food Patterns Equivalent Database, the authors measured food prices using three different metrics: price per 100 calories, price per 100 edible grams, and price per average portion. The authors found that healthy foods are cheaper than unhealthy foods when cost is measured with the latter two metrics.
20. Townsend MS et al. Less-energy-dense diets of low-income women in California are associated with higher energy-adjusted diet costs. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(4): 1220-6.
21. Bernstein AM et al. Relation of food cost to healthfulness of diet among US women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(5): 1197-203.
22. Rydén PJ, Hagfors L. Diet cost, diet quality and socio-economic position: how are they related and what contributes to differences in diet costs? Public Health Nutr. 2011;14(09): 1680-92.
23. Rehm CD, Monsivais P, Drewnowski A. The quality and monetary value of diets consumed by adults in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94(5): 1333-9.
24. Cleary J et al. Does a low Glycaemic Index (GI) diet cost more during pregnancy? Nutrients. 2012;4(11): 1759-66.
25. Raynor HA et al. A cost-analysis of adopting a healthful diet in a family-based obesity treatment program. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102(5): 645-56.
26. Kamphuis C et al. Environmental determinants of fruit and vegetable consumption among adults: a systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2006;96(04): 620-35.
27. •• Giskes K et al. A systematic review of studies on socioeconomic inequalities in dietary intakes associated with weight gain and overweight/obesity conducted among European adults. Obes Rev. 2010;11(6): 413-29. This systematic review considered articles that examined the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and diet among European adults in 1990-2007. The review finds that SES has a small effect on consumption of fat and fiber. The most consistent difference in the literature is that low-SES consumers have low consumption of fruit and vegetables.
28. Tiffin R, Arnoult M. The demand for a healthy diet: estimating the almost ideal demand system with infrequency of purchase. Eur Rev Agric Econ. 2010;37(4): 501-21.
29. Appelhans BM et al. Socioeconomic status, energy cost, and nutrient content of supermarket food purchases. Am J Prev Med. 2012;42(4): 398-402.
30. Srinivasan CS. Food consumption impacts of adherence to dietary norms in the United States: a quantitative assessment. Agric Econ. 2007;37(2-3): 249-56.
31. Ruhm CJ. Are recessions good for your health? Q J Econ. 2000;115(2): 617-50.
32. Guthrie JF, Lin B-H, Frazao E. Role of food prepared away from home in the American diet, 1977-78 versus 1994-96: changes and consequences. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2002;34(3): 140-50.
33. Variyam J. Nutrition labeling in the food-away-from-home sector: an economic assessment. USDA-ERS Economic Research Report, 2005(4).
34. •• Raschke C. Food stamps and the time cost of food preparation. Rev Econ Househ. 2012;10(2): 259-75. The authors examine the time costs of food preparation using the American Time Use Survey 2003-2006. They estimate the time cost of food preparation and cleanup for SNAP participants and for the general public.
35. •• Davis GC, You W. The time cost of food at home: general and food stamp participant profiles. Appl Econ. 2010;42(20): 2537-52. This study examines the time costs food preparation and cleanup using the American Time Use Survey. The authors compare the amount of time Americans spend on these activities to what is required by the TFP.
36. Chenhall C. Improving cooking and food preparation skills: a synthesis of the evidence to inform program and policy development. 2010. Available at: www. hc-sc. gc. ca/fn-an/nutrition/child-enfant/cfps-acc-synthes-eng. php. Accessed 17 April 2013.
37. Engler-Stringer R. Food, cooking skills, and health: a literature review. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2010;71(3): 141-5.
38. Larson NI et al. Food preparation by young adults is associated with better diet quality. J Am Diet Assoc. 2006;106(12): 2001-7.
39. Hartmann C, Dohle S, Siegrist M. Importance of cooking skills for balanced food choices. Appetite. 2013.
40. Besharov DJ, Bitler M, Haider SJ. An economic view of food deserts in the United States. J Policy Anal Manag. 2011;30(1): 153-76.
41. Ver Ploeg, M (Ed.). Access to affordable and nutritious food: measuring and understanding food deserts and their consequences: report to Congress. USDA Economic Research Service; 2009.
42. Beaulac J, Kristjansson E, Cummins S. A systematic review of food deserts, 1966-2007. Prev Chronic Dis. 2009;6(3).
43. Lewis LB, et al. African Americans' access to healthy food options in South Los Angeles restaurants. J Info. 2005;95(4).
44. Fleischhacker S et al. A systematic review of fast food access studies. Obes Rev. 2011;12(5): e460-71.
45. Drewnowski A, Almiron-Roig E. Human perceptions and preferences for fat-rich foods. In: J.-Montmayeur P, Coutre JL editors. Fat detection: taste, texture, and post ingestive effects. 2010. p. 265-266.
46. Tzieropoulos H et al. Dietary fat induces sustained reward response in the human brain without primary taste cortex discrimination. Front Hum Neurosci. 2013;7: 36.
47. Cairns G et al. Systematic reviews of the evidence on the nature, extent and effects of food marketing to children: a retrospective summary. Appetite. 2013;62: 209-15.
48. Chandon P, Wansink B. Does food marketing need to make us fat? A review and solutions. Nutr Rev. 2012;70(10): 571-93.
49. Freeman RP, Booth DA. Users of 'diet'drinks who think that sweetness is calories. Appetite. 2010;55(1): 152-5.
50. Raghunathan R, Naylor RW, Hoyer WD. The unhealthy=tasty intuition and its effects on taste inferences, enjoyment, and choice of food products. J Market. 2006: 170-84.
51. Finkelstein SR, Fishbach A. When healthy food makes you hungry. J Consum Res. 2010;37(3): 357-67.
52. Dobson PW, Gerstner E. For a few cents more: why supersize unhealthy food? Market Sci. 2010;29(4): 770-8.
53. Jain S. Marketing of vice goods: a strategic analysis of the package size decision. Market Sci. 2012;31(1): 36-51.
54. Chiou W-B, Yang C-C, Wan C-S. Ironic effects of dietary supplementation illusory invulnerability created by taking dietary supplements licenses health-risk behaviors. Psychol Sci. 2011;22(8): 1081-6.
55. Milkman KL. Unsure what the future will bring? You may overindulge: uncertainty increases the appeal of wants over shoulds. Organ Behav Hum Decis. 2012;119(2): 163-76.
56. Huston SJ, Finke MS. Diet choice and the role of time preference. J Consum Aff. 2003;37(1): 143-60.
57. • Milkman KL, Rogers T, Bazerman MH. I'll have the ice cream soon and the vegetables later: a study of online grocery purchases and order lead time. Market Lett. 2010;21(1): 17-35. The authors conduct a laboratory experiment to estimate the impact of introducing a two-day delay between a consumer's food order and delivery. The authors find that a delay increases the percentage of healthy foods (vegetables) and decreases the percentage of unhealthy foods (ice cream) that consumers order.
58. Redden J, Haws K. Healthy satiation: the role of decreasing desire in effective self-control. J Consum Res. 2013.
59. Feeney E et al. Genetic variation in taste perception: does it have a role in healthy eating? Proc Nutr Soc. 2011;70(01): 135-43.
60. Dotson CD, Babich J, Steinle NI. Genetic predisposition and taste preference: impact on food intake and risk of chronic disease. Curr Nutr Rep. 2012;1(3): 175-83.
61. Chun H, Patrick VM, MacInnis DJ. Making prudent vs. impulsive choices: the role of anticipated shame and guilt on consumer self-control. Adv Consum Res. 2007;34: 715.
62. Cooke L. The importance of exposure for healthy eating in childhood: a review. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2007;20(4): 294-301.
63. Thomas M, Desai KK, Seenivasan S. How credit card payments increase unhealthy food purchases: visceral regulation of vices. J Consum Res. 2011;38(1): 126-39.
64. Blaylock J et al. Economics, food choices, and nutrition. Food Policy. 1999;24(2-3): 269-86.
65. Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press; 1983.
66. Balasubramanian SK, Cole C. Consumers' search and use of nutrition information: the challenge and promise of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act. J Market. 2002;66(3): 112-27.
67. Drichoutis A, Lazaridis P, Rodolfo J, Nayga M. Consumers' use of nutritional labels: a review of research studies and issues. Acad Market Sci Rev. 2006;10(9).
68. Variyam JN. Do nutrition labels improve dietary outcomes? Health Econ. 2008;17(6): 695-708.
69. Federal Register. Food labeling: nutrition labeling of standard menu items in restaurants and similar retail food establishments. 2012. Available at: https://www. federalregister. gov/regulations/0910-AG57/food-labeling-nutrition-labeling-of-standard-menu-items-in-restaurants-and-similar-retail-food-estab. Accessed 16 April 2013.
70. Moorman C. A quasi experiment to assess the consumer and informational determinants of nutrition information processing activities: the case of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act. J Public Policy Mark. 1996;15(1): 28-44.
71. Howlett E, Burton S, Kozup J. How modification of the nutrition facts panel influences consumers at risk for heart disease: the case of trans fat. J Public Policy Mark. 2008;27(1): 83-97.
72. Kozup J, Burton S, Creyer EH. The provision of trans fat information and its interaction with consumer knowledge. J Consum Aff. 2006;40(1): 163-76.
73. Rice DP, Fineman N. Economic implications of increased longevity in the United States. Ann Rev Public Health. 2004;25(1): 457-73.
74. Lock K et al. The global burden of disease attributable to low consumption of fruit and vegetables: implications for the global strategy on diet. Bull World Health Organ. 2005;83(2): 100-8.
75. World Health Organization, Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases: Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation, in WHO Technical Report Series No. 916. 2003, Geneva, Switzerland.
76. Frazão E. High costs of poor eating patterns in the United States. Chapter 1 in America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. USDA Economic Research Service; 1999.
77. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Detailed tables for the National Vital Statistics Report "Deaths: Final Data for 2010". 2013. Available at: http://www. cdc. gov/nchs/data/dvs/deaths_2010_release. pdf. Accessed 22 March 2013.
78. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leading causes of death. 2013. Available at: http://www. cdc. gov/nchs/fastats/lcod. htm. Accessed 22 March 2013.
79. Singh GK, Kochanek KD, MacDorman MF. Advance report of final mortality statistics, 1994. Monthly Vital Statistics Report. 1996;45(3, Supplement).
80. Yach D, et al. The global burden of chronic diseases: overcoming impediments to prevention and control. 2004;291(21): 2616-22.
81. Barefield E. Osteopororsis-related hip fractures cost $13 billion to $18 billion yearly. Food Rev. 1996;19(1): 31-6.
82. Bray GA. Health hazards of obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 1996;25(4): 907-19.
83. Popkin BM, Kim S, Rusev ER, Du S, Zizza C. Measuring the full economic costs of diet, physical activity and obesity-related chronic diseases. Obesity Reviews. 2006;7(3): 271-293.
84. Finkelstein EA, Ruhm CJ, Kosa KM. Economic causes and consequences of obesity. Annu Rev Public Health. 2005;26: 239-57.
85. Cummings SR, Melton LJ. Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002;359(9319): 1761-7.
86. Johnell O, Kanis JA. An estimate of the worldwide prevalence, mortality and disability associated with hip fracture. Osteoporos Int. 2006;17(12): 1726-33.
87. Johnell O et al. Mortality after osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int. 2004;15(1): 38-42.
88. Fields LE et al. The burden of adult hypertension in the United States 1999 to 2000: a rising tide. Hypertension. 2004;44(4): 398-404.
89. Bailey RL et al. Total folate and folic acid intakes from foods and dietary supplements in the United States: 2003-2006. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(1): 231-7.
90. Kuczmarski MF et al. Higher Healthy Eating Index-2005 scores associated with reduced symptoms of depression in an urban population: findings from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity Across the Life Span (HANDLS) study. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(3): 383-9.
91. Viscusi WK. The value of risks to life and health. J Econ Lit. 1993;31(4): 1912-46.
92. Landefeld JS, Seskin EP. The economic value of life: linking theory to practice. Am J Public Health. 1982;72(6): 555-66.
93. Cheung BMY et al. Diabetes prevalence and therapeutic target achievement in the United States, 1999 to 2006. Am J Med. 2009;122(5): 443-53.
94. Mokdad A et al. The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. JAMA. 2001;286(10): 1195-200.
95. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2003: a vision for global health. Shaping the future; 2003.
96. Eyre H et al. Preventing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes: a common agenda for the American Cancer Society, the American Diabetes Association, and the American Heart Association*†. CA Cancer J Clin. 2004;54(4): 190-207.
97. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(1): 10-29.
98. Jemal A et al. Cancer statistics, 2008. CA Cancer J Clin. 2008;58(2): 71-96.
99. Ford ES et al. Explaining the decrease in U. S. Deaths from coronary disease, 1980-2000. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(23): 2388-98.
100. Meropol NJ, Schulman KA. Cost of cancer care: issues and implications. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(2): 180-6.