β-Carotene and Other Carotenoids and Pigments from Microalgae

Industrial Biotechnology of Vitamins, Biopigments, and Antioxidants

Volumn , Issue , 2016, Pages 265-286

  Grama, Borhane Samir ^a   Delhaye, Antoine ^a   Agathos, Spiros N ^a   Jeffryes, Clayton ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ CATHOLIQUE DE LOUVAIN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Adonixanthin; Astaxanthin; Bioprocess; Canthaxanthin; Chlorella; Dunaliella; Haematococcus; Oxidative stress; Photobioreactor; Raceway; Reactive oxygen species; Scenedesmus

Indexed keywords

ALGAE; CULTIVATION; MICROORGANISMS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PURIFICATION;

ADONIXANTHIN; ASTAXANTHIN; BIOPROCESSES; CANTHAXANTHIN; CHLORELLA; DUNALIELLA; HAEMATOCOCCUS; PHOTOBIORE-ACTOR; RACEWAY; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; SCENEDESMUS;

PIGMENTS;

EID: 84977765282     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9783527681754.ch10     Document Type: Chapter

References (130)

1. Abe, K., Hattori, H., and Hirano, M. (2007) Accumulation and antioxidant activity of secondary carotenoids in the aerial microalga Coelastrella striolata var. multistriata. Food Chem., 100, 656-661.
2. Aflalo, C., Meshulam, Y., Zarka, A., and Boussiba, S. (2007) On the relative efficiency of two- vs. one-stage production of astaxanthin by the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 98, 300-305.
3. Alscher, R.G., Donahue, J.L., and Cramer, C.L. (1997) Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants: relationships in green cells. Physiol. Plant., 100, 224-233.
4. Armstrong, G.A. (1997) Genetics of eubacterial carotenoid biosynthesis: a colorful tale. Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 51, 629-659.
5. Arnold, C., Schwarzenbolz, U., and Böhm, V. (2014) Carotenoids and chlorophylls in processed xanthophyll-rich food. LWT Food Sci. Technol., 57, 442-445.
6. Balasundaram, B., Skill, S.C., and Llewellyn, C.A. (2012) A low energy process for the recovery of bioproducts from cyanobacteria using a ball mill. Biochem. Eng. J., 69, 48-56.
7. Bar, E., Rise, M., Vishkautsan, M., and Arad, S. (1995) Pigment and structural changes in Chlorella zofingiensis upon light and nitrogen stress. J. Plant Physiol., 146, 527-534.
8. Beatty, S., Koh, H.H., Phil, M., Henson, D., and Boulton, M. (2000) The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv. Ophthalmol., 45, 115-134.
9. Beisel, K.G., Jahnke, S., Hofmann, D., Köppchen, S., Schurr, U., and Matsubara, S. (2010) Continuous turnover of carotenes and chlorophyll a in mature leaves of Arabidopsis revealed by 14CO2 pulse-chase labeling. Plant Physiol., 152, 2188-2199.
10. Ben-Amotz, A. (1995) New mode of Dunaliella biotechnology: two-phase growth for β-carotene production. J. Appl. Phycol., 7, 65-68.
11. Ben Amotz, A. and Avron, M. (1989) in Algal and Cyanobacterial Biotechnology (eds R.C. Cresswell, T.A.V. Rees, and N. Shah), Longman Scientific & Technical, New York, pp. 91-114.
12. Berman, J., Zorrilla-López, U., Farré, G., Zhu, C., Sandmann, G., Twyman, R.M., Capell, T., and Christou, P. (2015) Nutritionally important carotenoids as consumer products. Phytochem. Rev., 14, 727-743.
13. Blanco, A.M., Moreno, J., Del Campo, J.A., Rivas, J., and Guerrero, M.G. (2007) Outdoor cultivation of lutein-rich cells of Muriellopsis sp. in open ponds. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 73, 1259-1266.
14. Bolhassani, A., Khavari, A., and Bathaie, S.Z. (2014) Saffron and natural carotenoids: biochemical activities and anti-tumor effects. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Rev. Cancer, 1845, 20-30.
15. Borowitzka, M.A. (1999) Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. J. Biotechnol., 70, 313-321.
16. Borowitzka, M.A. (2013) High-value products from microalgae-their development and commercialisation. J. Appl. Phycol., 25, 743-756.
17. Borowitzka, M.A. and Borowitzka, L.J. (1989) in Biotechnology of Vitamins, Pigments and Growth Factors (ed. E. Vandamme), Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 15-26.
18. Britton, G. (1998) in Carotenoids: Biosynthesis and Metabolism (eds G. Britton, S. Liaaen-Jensen, and H. Pfander), Burkhäuser, Basel, pp. 13-147.
19. Cadoret, J.P., Garnier, M., and Saint-Jean, B. (2012) Microalgae, functional genomics and biotechnology. Adv. Bot. Res., 64, 285-341.
20. Campenni, L., Nobre, B.P., Santos, C.A., Oliveira, A.C., Aires-Barros, M.R., Palavra, A.M.F., and Gouveia, L. (2013) Carotenoid and lipid production by the autotrophic microalga Chlorella protothecoides under nutritional, salinity, and luminosity stress conditions. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 97, 1383-1393.
21. Cardozo, K.H.M., Guaratini, T., Barros, M.P., Falcao, V.R., Tonon, A.P., Lopes, N.P., Campos, S., Torres, M.A., Souza, A.O., Colepicolo, P. et al. (2007) Metabolites from algae with economical impact. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C: Toxicol. Pharmacol., 146, 60-78.
22. Chan, M.C., Ho, S.H., Lee, D.J., Chen, C.Y., Huang, C.C., and Chang, J.S. (2013) Characterization, extraction and purification of lutein produced by an indigenous microalga Scenedesmus obliquus CNW-N. Biochem. Eng. J., 78, 24-31.
23. Christenson, L. and Sims, R. (2011) Production and harvesting of microalgae for wastewater treatment, biofuels, and bioproducts. Biotechnol. Adv., 29, 686-702.
24. Cunningham, F.X.J. and Gantt, E. (1998) Genes and enzymes of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 49, 557-583.
25. Del Campo, J.A., Garcia-Gonzalez, M., and Guerrero, M.G. (2007) Outdoor cultivation of microalgae for carotenoid production: current state and perspectives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 74, 1163-1174.
26. Del Campo, J.A., Moreno, J., Rodriguez, H., Vargas, M.A., Rivas, J., and Guerrero, M.G. (2000) Carotenoid content of chlorophycean microalgae: factors determining lutein accumulation in Muriellopsis sp. (Chlorophyta). J. Biotechnol., 76, 51-59.
27. Del Campo, J.A., Rodriguez, H., Moreno, J., Angeles Vargas, M., Rivas, J., and Guerrero, M.G. (2001) Lutein production by Muriellopsis sp. in an outdoor tubular photobioreactor. J. Biotechnol., 85, 289-295.
28. Del Campo, J.A., Rodríguez, H., Moreno, J., Vargas, M.Á., Rivas, J., and Guerrero, M.G. (2004) Accumulation of astaxanthin and lutein in Chlorella zofingiensis (Chlorophyta). Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 64, 848-854.
29. Domonkos, I., Kis, M., Gombos, Z., and Ughy, B. (2013) Carotenoids, versatile components of oxygenic photosynthesis. Prog. Lipid Res., 52, 539-561.
30. Ernst, H. (2002) Recent advances in industrial carotenoid synthesis. Pure Appl. Chem., 74, 1369-1382.
31. Fassett, R.G. and Coombes, J.S. (2011) Astaxanthin: a potential therapeutic agent in cardiovascular disease. Mar. Drugs, 9, 447-465.
32. Fernandez-Sevilla, J.M., Fernandez, F.G.A., and Grima, E.M. (2010) Biotechnological production of lutein and its applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 86, 27-40.
33. Fiedler, D., Hager, U., Franke, H., Soltmann, U., and Bottcher, H. (2007) Algae biocers: astaxanthin formation in sol-gel immobilised living microalgae. J. Mater. Chem., 17, 261-266.
34. Foyer, C.H., Lopez-Delgado, H., Dat, J.F., and Scott, I.M. (1997) Hydrogen peroxideand glutathione-associated mechanisms of acclimatory stress tolerance and signalling. Physiol. Plant., 100, 241-254.
35. Ganesan, P., Matsubara, K., Sugawara, T., and Hirata, T. (2013) Marine algal carotenoids inhibit angiogenesis by down-regulating FGF-2-mediated intracellular signals in vascular endothelial cells. Mol. Cell. Biochem., 380, 1-9.
36. Garbayo, I., Cuaresma, M., Vilchez, C., and Vega, J.M. (2008) Effect of abiotic stress on the production of lutein and beta-carotene by Chlamydomonas acidophila. Process Biochem., 43, 1158-1161.
37. Garcia-Gonzalez, M., Moreno, J., Manzano, J.C., Florencio, F.J., and Guerrero, M.G. (2005) Production of Dunaliella salina biomass rich in 9-cis-beta-carotene and lutein in a closed tubular photobioreactor. J. Biotechnol., 115, 81-90.
38. Garg, S., Wang, L., and Schenk, P.M. (2014) Effective harvesting of low surfacehydrophobicity microalgae by froth flotation. Bioresour. Technol., 159, 437-441.
39. Gimpel, J.A., Specht, E.A., Georgianna, D.R., and Mayfield, S.P. (2013) Advances in microalgae engineering and synthetic biology applications for biofuel production. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol., 17, 489-495.
40. Goiris, K., De Vreese, P., De Cooman, L., and Muylaert, K. (2012) Rapid screening and guided extraction of antioxidants from microalgae using voltammetric methods. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 60, 7359-7366.
41. Gouveia, L., Veloso, V., Reis, A., Fernandes, H., Novais, J., and Empis, J. (1996) Evolution of pigment composition in Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresour. Technol., 57, 157-163.
42. Grama, B.S., Chader, S., Khelifi, D., Agathos, S.N., and Jeffryes, C. (2014a) Induction of canthaxanthin production in a Dactylococcus microalga isolated from the Algerian Sahara. Bioresour. Technol., 151, 297-305.
43. Grama, B.S., Delhaye, A., Chader, S., Khelifi, D., Agathos, S.N., and Jeffryes, C. (2014b) Canthaxanthin, astaxanthin and adonixanthin production from a Dactylococcus microalga in a new flat plate airlift photobioreactor. Commun. Agric. Appl. Biol. Sci., 79, 65-70.
44. Grewe, C., Menge, S., and Griehl, C. (2007) Enantioselective separation of all-Eastaxanthin and its determination in microbial sources. J. Chromatogr. A, 1166, 97-100.
45. Guedes, A.C., Amaro, H.M., and Malcata, F.X. (2011) Microalgae as sources of high added-value compounds-a brief review of recent work. Biotechnol. Progr., 27, 597-613.
46. Guerin, M., Huntley, M.E., and Olaizola, M. (2003) Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition. Trends Biotechnol., 21, 210-216.
47. Hagen, C., Braune, W., and Bjorn, L.O. (1994) Functional aspects of secondary carotenoids in Haematococcus lacustris (Volvocales). 3. Action as a sunshade. J. Phycol., 30, 241-248.
48. Halliwell, B. (1996) Antioxidants in human health and disease. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 16, 33-50.
49. Halliwell, B. and Gutteridge, J.M.C. (1999) Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
50. Han, D., Li, Y., and Hu, Q. (2013) Astaxanthin in microalgae: pathways, functions and biotechnological implications. Algae, 28, 131-147.
51. Hanagata, N. and Dubinsky, Z. (1999) Secondary carotenoid accumulation in Scenedesmus komarekii (Chlorophyceae, Chlorophyta). J. Phycol., 35, 960-966.
52. Harun, R., Singh, M., Forde, G.M., and Danquah, M.K. (2010) Bioprocess engineering of microalgae to produce a variety of consumer products. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 14, 1037-1047.
53. Heider, S.A.E., Peters-Wendisch, P., Wendisch, V.F., Beekwilder, J., and Brautaset, T. (2014) Metabolic engineering for the microbial production of carotenoids and related products with a focus on the rare C50 carotenoids. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 98, 4355-4368.
54. Hong, Y., Hu, H.Y., Xie, X., and Li, F.M. (2008) Responses of enzymatic antioxidants and non-enzymatic antioxidants in the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa to the allelochemical ethyl 2-methyl acetoacetate (EMA) isolated from reed (Phragmites communis). J. Plant Physiol., 165, 1264-1273.
55. Hu, C.C., Lin, J.T., Lu, F.J., Chou, F.P., and Yang, D.J. (2008) Determination of carotenoids in Dunaliella salina cultivated in Taiwan and antioxidant capacity of the algal carotenoid extract. Food Chem., 109, 439-446.
56. Hyka, P., Lickova, S., P?ribyl, P., Melzoch, K., and Kovar, K. (2013) Flow cytometry for the development of biotechnological processes with microalgae. Biotechnol. Adv., 31, 2-16.
57. Ip, P.F. and Chen, F. (2005a) Employment of reactive oxygen species to enhance astaxanthin formation in Chlorella zofingiensis in heterotrophic culture. Process Biochem., 40, 3491-3496.
58. Ip, P.F. and Chen, F. (2005b) Peroxynitrite and nitryl chloride enhance astaxanthin production by the green microalga Chlorella zofingiensis in heterotrophic culture. Process Biochem., 40, 3595-3599.
59. Ishida, B.K. and Chapman, M.H. (2009) Carotenoid extraction from plants using a novel, environmentally friendly solvent. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 57, 1051-1059.
60. Jeffryes, C., Agathos, S.N., and Rorrer, G. (2015) Biogenic nanomaterials from photosynthetic microorganisms. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 33, 23-31.
61. Jin, E., Polle, J.E.W., Lee, H.K., Hyun, S.M., and Chang, M. (2003) Xanthophylls in microalgae: from biosynthesis to biotechnological mass production and application. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 13, 165-174.
62. Jomova, K. and Valko, M. (2013) Health protective effects of carotenoids and their interactions with other biological antioxidants. Eur. J. Med. Chem., 70, 102-110.
63. Katsuda, T., Lababpour, A., Shimahara, K., and Katoh, S. (2004) Astaxanthin production by Haematococcus pluvialis under illumination with LEDs. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 35, 81-86.
64. Katsuda, T., Shiraishi, H., Ishizu, N., Ranjbar, R., and Katoh, S. (2008) Effect of light intensity and frequency of flashing light from blue light emitting diodes on astaxanthin production by Haematococcus pluvialis. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 105, 216-220.
65. Kim, Z.H., Kim, S.H., Lee, H.S., and Lee, C.G. (2006) Enhanced production of astaxanthin by flashing light using Haematococcus pluvialis. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 39, 414-419.
66. Lemoine, Y. and Schoefs, B. (2010) Secondary ketocarotenoid astaxanthin biosynthesis in algae: a multifunctional response to stress. Photosynth. Res., 106, 155-177.
67. Leya, T., Rahn, A., Lütz, C., and Remias, D. (2009) Response of arctic snow and permafrost algae to high light and nitrogen stress by changes in pigment composition and applied aspects for biotechnology. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 67, 432-443.
68. Li, J., Zhu, D., Niu, J., Shen, S., and Wang, G. (2011) An economic assessment of astaxanthin production by large scale cultivation of Haematococcus pluvialis. Biotechnol. Adv., 29, 568-574.
69. Lorenz, R.T. and Cysewski, G.R. (2000) Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends Biotechnol., 18, 160-167.
70. Mäki-Arvela, P., Hachemi, I., and Murzin, D.Y. (2014) Comparative study of the extraction methods for recovery of carotenoids from algae: extraction kinetics and effect of different extraction parameters. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 89, 1607-1626.
71. Mallick, N. and Mohn, F.H. (2000) Reactive oxygen species: response of algal cells. J. Plant Physiol., 157, 183-193.
72. Maoka, T., Yasui, H., Ohmori, A., Tokuda, H., Suzuki, N., Osawa, A., Shindo, K., and Ishibashi, T. (2013) Anti-oxidative, antitumor-promoting, and anti-carcinogenic activities of adonirubin and adonixanthin. J. Oleo Sci., 62, 181-186.
73. Mata, T.M., Martins, A.A., and Caetano, N.S. (2010) Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 14, 217-232.
74. Matsukawa, R., Hotta, M., Masuda, Y., Chihara, M., and Karube, I. (2000) Antioxidants from carbon dioxide fixing Chlorella sorokiniana. J. Appl. Phycol., 12, 263-267.
75. Metting, F.B. (1996) Biodiversity and application of microalgae. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 17, 477-489.
76. Miguel, F., Martín, A., Mattea, F., and Cocero, M.J. (2008) Precipitation of lutein and co-precipitation of lutein and poly-lactic acid with the supercritical anti-solvent process. Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif., 47, 1594-1602.
77. Milledge, J.J. (2011) Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol., 10, 31-41.
78. Molina-Grima, E.M., Belarbi, E.H., Fernandez, F.G.A., Medina, A.R., and Chisti, Y. (2003) Recovery of microalgal biomass and metabolites: process options and economics. Biotechnol. Adv., 20, 491-515.
79. Murray, P.M., Moane, S., Collins, C., Beletskaya, T., Thomas, O.P., Duarte, A.W.F., Nobre, F.S., Owoyemi, I.O., Pagnocca, F.C., Sette, L.D. et al. (2013) Sustainable production of biologically active molecules of marine based origin. New Biotechnol., 30, 839-850.
80. Niyogi, K.K. (1999) Photoprotection revisited: genetic and molecular approaches. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol., 50, 333-359.
81. Nonomura, A.M. (1987) Process for producing a naturally-derived carotene/oil composition by direct extraction from algae. US Patent 4680314 A.
82. Nurra, C., Torras, C., Clavero, E., Ríos, S., Rey, M., Lorente, E., Farriol, X., and Salvadó, J. (2014) Biorefinery concept in a microalgae pilot plant. Culturing, dynamic filtration and steam explosion fractionation. Bioresour. Technol., 163, 136-142.
83. Olaizola, M. (2000) Commercial production of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis using 25,000-liter outdoor photobioreactors. J. Appl. Phycol., 12, 499-506.
84. Olaizola, M. (2003) Commercial development of microalgal biotechnology: from the test tube to the marketplace. Biomol. Eng., 20, 459-466.
85. Orosa, M., Torres, E., Fidalgo, P., and Abalde, J. (2000) Production and analysis of secondary carotenoids in green algae. J. Appl. Phycol., 12, 553-556.
86. Park, S.K., Jin, E., Lee, C.G., and Lee, M.Y. (2008) High light-induced changes in the activities of antioxidant enzymes and the accumulation of astaxanthin in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. Mol. Cell. Toxicol., 4, 300-306.
87. Park, E.K. and Lee, C.G. (2001) Astaxanthin production by Haematococcus pluvialis under various light intensities and wavelengths. J. Microb. Biotechnol., 11, 1024-1030.
88. Pelah, D., Sintov, A., and Cohen, E. (2004) The effect of salt stress on the production of canthaxanthin and astaxanthin by Chlorella zofingiensis grown under limited light intensity. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 20, 483-486.
89. Person, J. (2011) Algues, filières du future (Romainville, France, Adebiotech), http:// www.adebiotech.org/home/img/algues/LIVRE_TURQUOISE-V.screen.pdf (accessed 10 January 2015).
90. Plaza, M., Santoyo, S., Jaime, L., Avalo, B., Cifuentes, A., Reglero, G., García-Blairsy Reina, G., Señoráns, F.J., and Ibáñez, E. (2012) Comprehensive characterization of the functional activities of pressurized liquid and ultrasound-assisted extracts from Chlorella vulgaris. LWT Food Sci. Technol., 46, 245-253.
91. Qin, S., Lin, H., and Jiang, P. (2012) Advances in genetic engineering of marine algae. Biotechnol. Adv., 30, 1602-1613.
92. Qin, S., Liu, G.-X., and Hu, Z.-Y. (2008) The accumulation and metabolism of astaxanthin in Scenedesmus obliquus (Chlorophyceae). Process Biochem., 43, 795-802.
93. Rabbani, S., Beyer, P., Lintig, J.V., Hugueney, P., and Kleinig, H. (1998) Induced β-Carotene synthesis driven by triacylglycerol deposition in the unicellular alga Dunaliella bardawil. Plant Physiol., 116, 1239-1248.
94. Radakovits, R., Jinkerson, R.E., Darzins, A., and Posewitz, M.C. (2010) Genetic engineering of algae for enhanced biofuel production. Eukaryotic Cell, 9, 486-501.
95. Raja, R., Hemaiswarya, S., and Rengasamy, R. (2007) Exploitation of Dunaliella for betacarotene production. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 74, 517-523.
96. Rao, A.V. and Rao, L.G. (2007) Carotenoids and human health. Pharmacol. Res., 55, 207-216.
97. Rasala, B.A., Lee, P.A., Shen, Z., Briggs, S.P., Mendez, M., and Mayfield, S.P. (2012) Robust expression and secretion of xylanase1 in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by fusion to a selection gene and processing with the FMDV 2A peptide. PLoS One, 7, e43349.
98. Rodriguez-Concepcion, M. and Stange, C. (2013) Biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot: an underground story comes to light. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 539, 110-116.
99. Rosello Sastre, R. (2012) in Microalgal Biotechnology: Integration and Economy (eds C. Posten and C. Walter), De Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 13-44.
100. Ryckebosch, E., Muylaert, K., Eeckhout, M., Ruyssen, T., and Foubert, I. (2011) Influence of drying and storage on lipid and carotenoid stability of the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 59, 11063-11069.
101. Sanchez, J.F., Fernandez-Sevilla, J.M., Acien, F.G., Ceron, M.C., Perez-Parra, J., and Molina-Grima, E. (2008a) Biomass and lutein productivity of Scenedesmus almeriensis: influence of irradiance, dilution rate and temperature. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 79, 719-729.
102. Sanchez, J.F., Fernandez-Sevilla, J.M., Acien, F.G., Rueda, A., Perez-Parra, J., and Molina-Grima, E. (2008b) Influence of culture conditions on the productivity and lutein content of the new strain Scenedesmus almeriensis. Process Biochem., 43, 398-405.
103. Sarada, R., Vidhyavathi, R., Usha, D., and Ravishankar, G.A. (2006) An efficient method for extraction of astaxanthin from green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 54, 7585-7588.
104. Sarkar, C.R., Das, L., Bhagawati, B., and Goswami, B.C. (2012) A comparative study of carotenoid extraction from algae in different solvent systems. Asian J. Plant Sci. Res., 2, 546-549.
105. Schoefs, B., Rmiki, N.E., Rachadi, J., and Lemoine, Y. (2001) Astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus requires a cytochrome P450 hydroxylase and an active synthesis of fatty acids. FEBS Lett., 500, 125-128.
106. Sharma, K.K., Garg, S., Li, Y., Malekizadeh, A., and Schenk, P.M. (2013) Critical analysis of current microalgae dewatering techniques. Biofuels, 4, 397-407.
107. Shi, X.M., Jiang, Y., and Chen, F. (2002) High-yield production of lutein by the green microalga Chlorella protothecoides in heterotrophic fed-batch culture. Biotechnol. Progr., 18, 723-727.
108. Shuman, T.R., Mason, G., Marsolek, M.D., Lin, Y., Reeve, D., and Schacht, A. (2014) An ultra-low energy method for rapidly pre-concentrating microalgae. Bioresour. Technol., 158, 217-224.
109. Sies, H. and Stahl, W. (2004) Nutritional protection against skin damage from sunlight. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 24, 173-200.
110. Skjånes, K., Rebours, C., and Lindblad, P. (2013) Potential for green microalgae to produce hydrogen, pharmaceuticals and other high value products in a combined process. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 33, 172-215.
111. Solovchenko, A. (2010) Photoprotection in Plants, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
112. Solovchenko, A.E. (2012) Physiological role of neutral lipid accumulation in eukaryotic microalgae under stresses. Russ. J. Plant Physiol., 59, 167-176.
113. Solovchenko, A.E. (2013) Physiology and adaptive significance of secondary carotenogenesis in green microalgae. Russ. J. Plant Physiol., 60, 1-13.
114. Solovchenko, A., Aflalo, C., Lukyanov, A., and Boussiba, S. (2013) Nondestructive monitoring of carotenogenesis in Haematococcus pluvialis via whole-cell optical density spectra. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 97, 4533-4541.
115. Splinter, S., Pare, J.J.R. and Kadali, S. (2013) Method for direct extraction and concentration of naturally-derived active compounds. US Patent 20130338234 A1.
116. Stahl, W. and Sies, H. (2005) Bioactivity and protective effects of natural carotenoids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Mol. Basis Dis., 1740, 101-107.
117. Stahl, W. and Sies, H. (2007) Carotenoids and flavonoids contribute to nutritional protection against skin damage from sunlight. Mol. Biotechnol., 37, 26-30.
118. Steinbrenner, J. and Linden, H. (2003) Light induction of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis: regulation by photosynthetic redox control. Plant Mol. Biol., 52, 343-356.
119. Sun, N., Wang, Y., Li, Y.T., Huang, J.C., and Chen, F. (2008) Sugar-based growth, astaxanthin accumulation and carotenogenic transcription of heterotrophic Chlorella zofingiensis (Chlorophyta). Process Biochem., 43, 1288-1292.
120. Takaichi, S. (2011) Carotenoids in algae: distributions, biosyntheses and functions. Mar. Drugs, 9, 1101-1118.
121. Takaichi, S. and Mochimaru, M. (2007) Carotenoids and carotenogenesis in cyanobacteria: unique ketocarotenoids and carotenoid glycosides. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 64, 2607-2619.
122. Talisic, G.C., Yumang, A.N., and Salta, M.T.S. (2012) Supercritical fluid extraction of β-carotene from D. salina algae using C2H6 and C2H2. Int. Proc. Chem., Biol. Environ. Eng., 36, 30-34.
123. Tardy, F. and Havaux, M. (1996) Photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence, lightharvesting system and photoinhibition resistance of a zeaxanthin-accumulating mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Photochem. Photobiol., B, 34, 87-94.
124. Tocquin, P., Fratamico, A., and Franck, F. (2012) Screening for a low-cost Haematococcus pluvialis medium reveals an unexpected impact of a low N/P ratio on vegetative growth. J. Appl. Phycol., 24, 365-373.
125. Vandamme, D., Foubert, I., and Muylaert, K. (2013) Flocculation as a low-cost method for harvesting microalgae for bulk biomass production. Trends Biotechnol., 31, 233-239.
126. Xie, Y.P., Ho, S.H., Chen, C.Y., Chen, C.N.N., Liu, C.C., Ng, I.S., Jing, K.J., Yang, S.C., Chen, C.H., Chang, J.S. et al. (2014) Simultaneous enhancement of CO2 fixation and lutein production with thermo-tolerant Desmodesmus sp. F51 using a repeated fed-batch cultivation strategy. Biochem. Eng. J., 86, 33-40.
127. Young, A.J. and Lowe, G.M. (2001) Antioxidant and prooxidant properties of carotenoids. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 385, 20-27.
128. Zhang, D.H., Lee, Y.K., Ng, M.L., and Phang, S.M. (1997) Composition and accumulation of secondary carotenoids in Chlorococcum sp. J. Appl. Phycol., 9, 147-155.
129. Zhekisheva, M., Zarka, A., Khozin-Goldberg, I., Cohen, Z., and Boussiba, S. (2005) Inhibition of astaxanthin synthesis under high irradiance does not abolish triacylglycerol accumulation in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis (Chlorophyceae). J. Phycol., 41, 819-826.
130. Zhu, Y.H. and Jiang, J.G. (2008) Continuous cultivation of Dunaliella salina in photobioreactor for the production of beta-carotene. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 227, 953-959.