Spontaneous and Therapeutic-Induced Mechanisms of Functional Recovery After Stroke

Translational Stroke Research

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 33-46

  Cassidy, Jessica M ^a   Cramer, Steven C ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomarker; Neuroimaging; Plasticity; Rehabilitation; Repair; Stroke

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

ARTICLE; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN MAPPING; BRAIN REGION; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY; HEMISPHERE; HUMAN; NEUROMODULATION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TIME TO TREATMENT; ANIMAL; BRAIN; CONVALESCENCE; METABOLISM; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE TRACT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; STROKE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ANIMALS; BIOMARKERS; BRAIN; HUMANS; NEURAL PATHWAYS; NEURONAL PLASTICITY; RECOVERY OF FUNCTION; STROKE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84964265535     PISSN: 18684483     EISSN: 1868601X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12975-016-0467-5     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Go AS, Mozaffarian D, Roger VL, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Blaha MJ, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2014 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2014;129(3):e28–e292. doi:10.1161/01.cir.0000441139.02102.80.
2. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2012;125(1):e2–e220.
3. Rathore SS, Hinn AR, Cooper LS, Tyroler HA, Rosamond WD. Characterization of incident stroke signs and symptoms: findings from the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Stroke. 2002;33(11):2718–21.
4. Kwakkel G, Kollen BJ, van der Grond J, Prevo AJ. Probability of regaining dexterity in the flaccid upper limb: impact of severity of paresis and time since onset in acute stroke. Stroke. 2003;34(9):2181–6. doi:10.1161/01.str.0000087172.16305.cd.
5. Kwakkel G, Kollen BJ. Predicting activities after stroke: what is clinically relevant? Int J Stroke. 2013;8(1):25–32. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4949.2012.00967.x.
6. Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Recovery of walking function in stroke patients: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995;76(1):27–32.
7. Nakayama H, Jorgensen HS, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Recovery of upper extremity function in stroke patients: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75(4):394–8.
8. Hier DB, Mondlock J, Caplan LR. Recovery of behavioral abnormalities after right hemisphere stroke. Neurology. 1983;33(3):345–50.
9. Cassidy TP, Lewis S, Gray CS. Recovery from visuospatial neglect in stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64(4):555–7.
10. Pedersen PM, Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Impaired orientation in acute stroke: frequency, determinants, and time-course of recovery. The Copenhagen Stroke Study. Cerebrovasc Dis. 1998;8(2):90–6.
11. Desmond DW, Moroney JT, Sano M, Stern Y. Recovery of cognitive function after stroke. Stroke. 1996;27(10):1798–803.
12. Wade DT, Parker V, Langton HR. Memory disturbance after stroke: frequency and associated losses. Int Rehabil Med. 1986;8(2):60–4.
13. Kertesz A, McCabe P. Recovery patterns and prognosis in aphasia. Brain. 1977;100(Pt 1):1–18.
14. Pedersen PM, Jorgensen HS, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Aphasia in acute stroke: incidence, determinants, and recovery. Ann Neurol. 1995;38(4):659–66. doi:10.1002/ana.410380416.
15. Kleim JA, Chan S, Pringle E, Schallert K, Procaccio V, Jimenez R, et al. BDNF val66met polymorphism is associated with modified experience-dependent plasticity in human motor cortex. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9(6):735–7.
16. Cramer SC, Procaccio V. Correlation between genetic polymorphisms and stroke recovery: analysis of the GAIN Americas and GAIN International Studies. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19(5):718–24. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2011.03615.x.
17. Helm EE, Tyrell CM, Pohlig RT, Brady LD, Reisman DS. The presence of a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the BDNF gene affects the rate of locomotor adaptation after stroke. Exp Brain Res. 2015. doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4465-8.
18. Chang EY, Chang EH, Cragg S, Cramer SC. Predictors of gains during inpatient rehabilitation in patients with stroke—a review. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med. 2013;25(3-4):203–21. doi:10.1615/CritRevPhysRehabilMed.2013008120.
19. Hillis AE, Barker PB, Wityk RJ, Aldrich EM, Restrepo L, Breese EL, et al. Variability in subcortical aphasia is due to variable sites of cortical hypoperfusion. Brain Lang. 2004;89(3):524–30. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2004.01.007.
20. Lindenberg R, Renga V, Zhu LL, Betzler F, Alsop D, Schlaug G. Structural integrity of corticospinal motor fibers predicts motor impairment in chronic stroke. Neurology. 2010;74(4):280–7. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181ccc6d9.
21. Zhu LL, Lindenberg R, Alexander MP, Schlaug G. Lesion load of the corticospinal tract predicts motor impairment in chronic stroke. Stroke; J Cerebral Circ. 2010;41(5):910–5. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.577023.
22. Riley JD, Le V, Der-Yeghiaian L, See J, Newton JM, Ward NS, et al. Anatomy of stroke injury predicts gains from therapy. Stroke. 2011;42(2):421–6. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.110.599340.
23. Cramer SC. Repairing the human brain after stroke. II. Restorative therapies. Ann Neurol. 2008;63(5):549–60. doi:10.1002/ana.21412.
24. Lo EH. A new penumbra: transitioning from injury into repair after stroke. Nat Med. 2008;14(5):497–500.
25. Astrup J, Siesjo BK, Symon L. Thresholds in cerebral ischemia—the ischemic penumbra. Stroke. 1981;12(6):723–5.
26. Cramer SC, Sur M, Dobkin BH, O’Brien C, Sanger TD, Trojanowski JQ, et al. Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications. Brain. 2011;134(Pt 6):1591–609. doi:10.1093/brain/awr039.
27. Overman JJ, Carmichael ST. Plasticity in the injured brain: more than molecules matter. Neuroscientist. 2014;20(1):15–28. doi:10.1177/1073858413491146.
28. Carmichael ST. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of neural repair after stroke: making waves. Ann Neurol. 2006;59(5):735–42. doi:10.1002/ana.20845.
29. Murphy TH, Corbett D. Plasticity during stroke recovery: from synapse to behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(12):861–72.
30. Jones TA, Kleim JA, Greenough WT. Synaptogenesis and dendritic growth in the cortex opposite unilateral sensorimotor cortex damage in adult rats: a quantitative electron microscopic examination. Brain Res. 1996;733(1):142–8.
31. Jones TA, Schallert T. Overgrowth and pruning of dendrites in adult rats recovering from neocortical damage. Brain Res. 1992;581(1):156–60.
32. Zhang RL, Zhang ZG, Chopp M. Ischemic stroke and neurogenesis in the subventricular zone. Neuropharmacology. 2008;55(3):345–52. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.05.027.
33. Ding G, Jiang Q, Li L, Zhang L, Zhang ZG, Ledbetter KA, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging investigation of axonal remodeling and angiogenesis after embolic stroke in sildenafil-treated rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008;28(8):1440–8. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2008.33.
34. Seevinck PR, Deddens LH, Dijkhuizen RM. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain angiogenesis after stroke. Angiogenesis. 2010;13(2):101–11. doi:10.1007/s10456-010-9174-0.
35. Teng H, Zhang ZG, Wang L, Zhang RL, Zhang L, Morris D, et al. Coupling of angiogenesis and neurogenesis in cultured endothelial cells and neural progenitor cells after stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2008;28(4):764–71. doi:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600573.
36. Li S, Carmichael ST. Growth-associated gene and protein expression in the region of axonal sprouting in the aged brain after stroke. Neurobiol Dis. 2006;23(2):362–73. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.03.011.
37. Redecker C, Wang W, Fritschy JM, Witte OW. Widespread and long-lasting alterations in GABA(A)-receptor subtypes after focal cortical infarcts in rats: mediation by NMDA-dependent processes. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2002;22(12):1463–75.
38. Que M, Schiene K, Witte OW, Zilles K. Widespread up-regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors after focal photothrombotic lesion in rat brain. Neurosci Lett. 1999;273(2):77–80.
39. Dancause N, Barbay S, Frost SB, Plautz EJ, Chen D, Zoubina EV, et al. Extensive cortical rewiring after brain injury. J Neurosci. 2005;25(44):10167–79. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3256-05.2005.
40. Sist B, Fouad K, Winship IR. Plasticity beyond peri-infarct cortex: spinal up regulation of structural plasticity, neurotrophins, and inflammatory cytokines during recovery from cortical stroke. Exp Neurol. 2014;252:47–56. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.11.019.
41. Lotze M, Markert J, Sauseng P, Hoppe J, Plewnia C, Gerloff C. The role of multiple contralesional motor areas for complex hand movements after internal capsular lesion. J Neurosci. 2006;26(22):6096–102. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4564-05.2006.
42. Johansen-Berg H, Rushworth MF, Bogdanovic MD, Kischka U, Wimalaratna S, Matthews PM. The role of ipsilateral premotor cortex in hand movement after stroke. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(22):14518–23. doi:10.1073/pnas.222536799.
43. Bradnam LV, Stinear CM, Barber PA, Byblow WD. Contralesional hemisphere control of the proximal paretic upper limb following stroke. Cereb Cortex. 2012;22(11):2662–71. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr344.
44. Ward NS, Brown MM, Thompson AJ, Frackowiak RS. Neural correlates of motor recovery after stroke: a longitudinal fMRI study. Brain. 2003;126(Pt 11):2476–96. doi:10.1093/brain/awg245.
45. Feeney DM, Baron JC. Diaschisis. Stroke. 1986;17(5):817–30.
46. Buchkremer-Ratzmann I, August M, Hagemann G, Witte OW. Electrophysiological transcortical diaschisis after cortical photothrombosis in rat brain. Stroke. 1996;27(6):1105–9.
47. Carmichael ST, Tatsukawa K, Katsman D, Tsuyuguchi N, Kornblum HI. Evolution of diaschisis in a focal stroke model. Stroke. 2004;35(3):758–63.
48. Pappata S, Levasseur M, Gunn RN, Myers R, Crouzel C, Syrota A, et al. Thalamic microglial activation in ischemic stroke detected in vivo by PET and [11C] PK11195. Neurology. 2000;55(7):1052–4.
49. Schaechter JD, Moore CI, Connell BD, Rosen BR, Dijkhuizen RM. Structural and functional plasticity in the somatosensory cortex of chronic stroke patients. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 10):2722–33. doi:10.1093/brain/awl214.
50. Zhang J, Meng L, Qin W, Liu N, Shi FD, Yu C. Structural damage and functional reorganization in ipsilesional m1 in well-recovered patients with subcortical stroke. Stroke. 2014;45(3):788–93. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.113.003425.
51. Fridman EA, Hanakawa T, Chung M, Hummel F, Leiguarda RC, Cohen LG. Reorganization of the human ipsilesional premotor cortex after stroke. Brain. 2004;127(Pt 4):747–58. doi:10.1093/brain/awh082.
52. Favre I, Zeffiro TA, Detante O, Krainik A, Hommel M, Jaillard A. Upper limb recovery after stroke is associated with ipsilesional primary motor cortical activity: a meta-analysis. Stroke. 2014;45(4):1077–83. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.113.003168.
53. Heiss WD, Thiel A. A proposed regional hierarchy in recovery of post-stroke aphasia. Brain Lang. 2006;98(1):118–23. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2006.02.002.
54. Warburton E, Price CJ, Swinburn K, Wise RJ. Mechanisms of recovery from aphasia: evidence from positron emission tomography studies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66(2):155–61.
55. Corbetta M, Kincade MJ, Lewis C, Snyder AZ, Sapir A. Neural basis and recovery of spatial attention deficits in spatial neglect. Nat Neurosci. 2005;8(11):1603–10. doi:10.1038/nn1574.
56. Barker AT, Jalinous R, Freeston IL. Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet. 1985;1(8437):1106–7.
57. Talelli P, Greenwood RJ, Rothwell JC. Arm function after stroke: neurophysiological correlates and recovery mechanisms assessed by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol. 2006;117(8):1641–59. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2006.01.016.
58. Stinear CM, Barber PA, Smale PR, Coxon JP, Fleming MK, Byblow WD. Functional potential in chronic stroke patients depends on corticospinal tract integrity. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 1):170–80.
59. van Kuijk AA, Anker LC, Pasman JW, Hendriks J, van Elswijk G, Geurts ACH. Stimulus–response characteristics of motor evoked potentials and silent periods in proximal and distal upper-extremity muscles. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2009;19(4):574–83.
60. Pennisi G, Alagona G, Rapisarda G, Nicoletti F, Costanzo E, Ferri R, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation after pure motor stroke. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113(10):1536–43.
61. Escudero JV, Sancho J, Bautista D, Escudero M, Lopez-Trigo J. Prognostic value of motor evoked potential obtained by transcranial magnetic brain stimulation in motor function recovery in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Stroke; J Cerebral Circ. 1998;29(9):1854–9.
62. Traversa R, Cicinelli P, Oliveri M, Giuseppina Palmieri M, Filippi MM, Pasqualetti P, et al. Neurophysiological follow-up of motor cortical output in stroke patients. Clin Neurophysiol. 2000;111(9):1695–703. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(00)00373-4.
63. Cicinelli P, Traversa R, Rossini PM. Post-stroke reorganization of brain motor output to the hand: a 2–4 month follow-up with focal magnetic transcranial stimulation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1997;105(6):438–50.
64. Traversa R, Cicinelli P, Bassi A, Rossini PM, Bernardi G. Mapping of motor cortical reorganization after stroke a brain stimulation study with focal magnetic pulses. Stroke. 1997;28(1):110–7.
65. Netz J, Lammers T, Homberg V. Reorganization of motor output in the non-affected hemisphere after stroke. Brain: J Neurol. 1997;120(Pt 9):1579–86.
66. Manganotti P, Patuzzo S, Cortese F, Palermo A, Smania N, Fiaschi A. Motor disinhibition in affected and unaffected hemisphere in the early period of recovery after stroke. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113(6):936–43.
67. Thickbroom GW, Byrnes ML, Archer SA, Mastaglia FL. Motor outcome after subcortical stroke: MEPs correlate with hand strength but not dexterity. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113(12):2025–9.
68. Cramer SC, Nelles G, Benson RR, Kaplan JD, Parker RA, Kwong KK, et al. A functional MRI study of subjects recovered from hemiparetic stroke. Stroke. 1997;28(12):2518–27.
69. Weiller C, Isensee C, Rijntjes M, Huber W, Muller S, Bier D, et al. Recovery from Wernicke’s aphasia: a positron emission tomographic study. Ann Neurol. 1995;37(6):723–32. doi:10.1002/ana.410370605.
70. Nelles G, Jentzen W, Bockisch A, Diener HC. Neural substrates of good and poor recovery after hemiplegic stroke: a serial PET study. J Neurol. 2011;258(12):2168–75. doi:10.1007/s00415-011-6085-y.
71. Frost SB, Barbay S, Friel KM, Plautz EJ, Nudo RJ. Reorganization of remote cortical regions after ischemic brain injury: a potential substrate for stroke recovery. J Neurophysiol. 2003;89(6):3205–14. doi:10.1152/jn.01143.2002.
72. Nair DG, Hutchinson S, Fregni F, Alexander M, Pascual-Leone A, Schlaug G. Imaging correlates of motor recovery from cerebral infarction and their physiological significance in well-recovered patients. Neuroimage. 2007;34(1):253–63. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.09.010.
73. Nelles G, Spiekermann G, Jueptner M, Leonhardt G, Muller S, Gerhard H, et al. Reorganization of sensory and motor systems in hemiplegic stroke patients. A positron emission tomography study. Stroke. 1999;30(8):1510–6.
74. van Oers CA, Vink M, van Zandvoort MJ, van der Worp HB, de Haan EH, Kappelle LJ, et al. Contribution of the left and right inferior frontal gyrus in recovery from aphasia. a functional MRI study in stroke patients with preserved hemodynamic responsiveness. Neuroimage. 2010;49(1):885–93. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.057.
75. Grefkes C, Ward NS. Cortical reorganization after stroke: how much and how functional? Neuroscientist. 2014;20(1):56–70. doi:10.1177/1073858413491147.
76. Buetefisch CM. Role of the contralesional hemisphere in post-stroke recovery of upper extremity motor function. Front Neurol. 2015;6:214. doi:10.3389/fneur.2015.00214.
77. Bestmann S, Swayne O, Blankenburg F, Ruff CC, Teo J, Weiskopf N, et al. The role of contralesional dorsal premotor cortex after stroke as studied with concurrent TMS-fMRI. J Neurosci. 2010;30(36):11926–37. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5642-09.2010.
78. Ackerley SJ, Stinear CM, Barber PA, Byblow WD. Combining theta burst stimulation with training after subcortical stroke. Stroke. 2010;41(7):1568–72. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.110.583278.
79. Schaechter JD, Perdue KL. Enhanced cortical activation in the contralesional hemisphere of chronic stroke patients in response to motor skill challenge. Cereb Cortex. 2008;18(3):638–47. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm096.
80. Mohapatra S, Harrington R, Chan E, Dromerick AW, Breceda EY, Harris-Love M. Role of contralesional hemisphere in paretic arm reaching in patients with severe arm paresis due to stroke: a preliminary report. Neurosci Lett. 2016;617:52–8. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2016.02.004.
81. Kim DY, Lim JY, Kang EK, You DS, Oh MK, Oh BM, et al. Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on motor recovery in patients with subacute stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89(11):879–86. doi:10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181f70aa7.
82. Grefkes C, Nowak DA, Wang LE, Dafotakis M, Eickhoff SB, Fink GR. Modulating cortical connectivity in stroke patients by rTMS assessed with fMRI and dynamic causal modeling. Neuroimage. 2010;50(1):233–42. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.029.
83. Fregni F, Boggio PS, Mansur CG, Wagner T, Ferreira MJ, Lima MC, et al. Transcranial direct current stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients. Neuroreport. 2005;16(14):1551–5.
84. Kokotilo KJ, Eng JJ, McKeown MJ, Boyd LA. Greater activation of secondary motor areas is related to less arm use after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2010;24(1):78–87. doi:10.1177/1545968309345269.
85. Calautti C, Naccarato M, Jones PS, Sharma N, Day DD, Carpenter AT, et al. The relationship between motor deficit and hemisphere activation balance after stroke: a 3T fMRI study. NeuroImage. 2007;34(1):322–31.
86. Logothetis NK, Pauls J, Augath M, Trinath T, Oeltermann A. Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature. 2001;412(6843):150–7.
87. Irlbacher K, Brocke J, Mechow JV, Brandt SA. Effects of GABA(A) and GABA(B) agonists on interhemispheric inhibition in man. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118(2):308–16.
88. Palmer LM, Schulz JM, Murphy SC, Ledergerber D, Murayama M, Larkum ME. The cellular basis of GABA(B)-mediated interhemispheric inhibition. Science. 2012;335(6071):989–93.
89. Daskalakis ZJ, Christensen BK, Fitzgerald PB, Roshan L, Chen R. The mechanisms of interhemispheric inhibition in the human motor cortex. J Physiol. 2002;543(1):317–26.
90. Ferbert A, Priori A, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Colebatch JG, Marsden CD. Interhemispheric inhibition of the human motor cortex. J Physiol. 1992;453:525–46.
91. Ward NS, Brown MM, Thompson AJ, Frackowiak RS. The influence of time after stroke on brain activations during a motor task. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(6):829–34. doi:10.1002/ana.20099.
92. Chollet F, DiPiero V, Wise RJ, Brooks DJ, Dolan RJ, Frackowiak RS. The functional anatomy of motor recovery after stroke in humans: a study with positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol. 1991;29(1):63–71. doi:10.1002/ana.410290112.
93. Carey JR, Kimberley TJ, Lewis SM, Auerbach EJ, Dorsey L, Rundquist P, et al. Analysis of fMRI and finger tracking training in subjects with chronic stroke. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 4):773–88.
94. Rehme AK, Eickhoff SB, Rottschy C, Fink GR, Grefkes C. Activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of motor-related neural activity after stroke. Neuroimage. 2012;59(3):2771–82. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.023.
95. Ward NS, Brown MM, Thompson AJ, Frackowiak RS. Longitudinal changes in cerebral response to proprioceptive input in individual patients after stroke: an FMRI study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2006;20(3):398–405. doi:10.1177/1545968306286322.
96. Pundik S, McCabe JP, Hrovat K, Fredrickson AE, Tatsuoka C, Feng IJ, et al. Recovery of post stroke proximal arm function, driven by complex neuroplastic bilateral brain activation patterns and predicted by baseline motor dysfunction severity. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015;9:394. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00394.
97. Ward NS, Newton JM, Swayne OBC, Lee L, Thompson AJ, Greenwood RJ, et al. Motor system activation after subcortical stroke depends on corticospinal system integrity. Brain. 2006;129(3):809–19.
98. Hamzei F, Liepert J, Dettmers C, Weiller C, Rijntjes M. Two different reorganization patterns after rehabilitative therapy: an exploratory study with fMRI and TMS. NeuroImage. 2006;31(2):710–20.
99. Wei W, Bai L, Wang J, Dai R, Tong RK, Zhang Y, et al. A longitudinal study of hand motor recovery after sub-acute stroke: a study combined FMRI with diffusion tensor imaging. PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e64154. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064154.
100. Zemke AC, Heagerty PJ, Lee C, Cramer SC. Motor cortex organization after stroke is related to side of stroke and level of recovery. Stroke. 2003;34(5):e23–8. doi:10.1161/01.str.0000065827.35634.5e.
101. Cramer SC, Crafton KR. Somatotopy and movement representation sites following cortical stroke. Exp Brain Res. 2006;168(1-2):25–32. doi:10.1007/s00221-005-0082-2.
102. Cramer SC, Moore CI, Finklestein SP, Rosen BR. A pilot study of somatotopic mapping after cortical infarct. Stroke. 2000;31(3):668–71.
103. Johansen-Berg H, Dawes H, Guy C, Smith SM, Wade DT, Matthews PM. Correlation between motor improvements and altered fMRI activity after rehabilitative therapy. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 12):2731–42.
104. Boroojerdi B, Diefenbach K, Ferbert A. Transcallosal inhibition in cortical and subcortical cerebral vascular lesions. J Neurol Sci. 1996;144(1):160–70.
105. Li J-Y, Lai P-H, Chen R. Transcallosal inhibition in patients with callosal infarction. J Neurophysiol. 2013;109(3):659–65.
106. Murase N, Duque J, Mazzocchio R, Cohen L. Influence of interhemispheric interactions on motor function in chronic stroke. Ann Neurol. 2004;55(3):400–9.
107. Duque J, Hummel F, Celnik P, Murase N, Mazzocchio R, Cohen L. Transcallosal inhibition in chronic subcortical stroke. NeuroImage. 2005;28(4):940–6.
108. Cicinelli P, Pasqualetti P, Zaccagnini M, Traversa R, Oliveri M, Rossini PM. Interhemispheric asymmetries of motor cortex excitability in the postacute stroke stage: a paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Stroke. 2003;34(11):2653–8.
109. Butefisch CM, Wessling M, Netz J, Seitz RJ, Homberg V. Relationship between interhemispheric inhibition and motor cortex excitability in subacute stroke patients. Neurorehab Neural Repair. 2008;22(1):4–21.
110. Shimizu T, Hosaki A, Hino T, Sato M, Komori T, Hirai S, et al. Motor cortical disinhibition in the unaffected hemisphere after unilateral cortical stroke. Brain. 2002;125(8):1896–907.
111. Scholz VH, Flaherty AW, Kraft E, Keltner JR, Kwong KK, Chen YI, et al. Laterality, somatotopy and reproducibility of the basal ganglia and motor cortex during motor tasks. Brain Res. 2000;879(1-2):204–15.
112. Morecraft RJ, Herrick JL, Stilwell-Morecraft KS, Louie JL, Schroeder CM, Ottenbacher JG, et al. Localization of arm representation in the corona radiata and internal capsule in the non-human primate. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 1):176–98.
113. Maillard L, Ishii K, Bushara K, Waldvogel D, Schulman AE, Hallett M. Mapping the basal ganglia: fMRI evidence for somatotopic representation of face, hand, and foot. Neurology. 2000;55(3):377–83.
114. Xerri C, Merzenich MM, Peterson BE, Jenkins W. Plasticity of primary somatosensory cortex paralleling sensorimotor skill recovery from stroke in adult monkeys. J Neurophysiol. 1998;79(4):2119–48.
115. Nudo RJ, Milliken GW. Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. J Neurophysiol. 1996;75(5):2144–9.
116. Dancause N, Barbay S, Frost SB, Zoubina EV, Plautz EJ, Mahnken JD, et al. Effects of small ischemic lesions in the primary motor cortex on neurophysiological organization in ventral premotor cortex. J Neurophysiol. 2006;96(6):3506–11. doi:10.1152/jn.00792.2006.
117. Plautz EJ, Barbay S, Frost SB, Friel KM, Dancause N, Zoubina EV, et al. Post-infarct cortical plasticity and behavioral recovery using concurrent cortical stimulation and rehabilitative training: a feasibility study in primates. Neurol Res. 2003;25(8):801–10. doi:10.1179/016164103771953880.
118. Bastings EP, Greenberg JP, Good DC. Hand motor recovery after stroke: a transcranial magnetic stimulation mapping study of motor output areas and their relation to functional status. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2002;16(3):275–82.
119. Rossini PM, Caltagirone C, Castriota-Scanderbeg A, Cicinelli P, Del Gratta C, Demartin M, et al. Hand motor cortical area reorganization in stroke: a study with fMRI, MEG and TCS maps. Neuroreport. 1998;9(9):2141–6.
120. Delvaux V, Alagona G, Gerard P, De Pasqua V, Pennisi G, de Noordhout AM. Post-stroke reorganization of hand motor area: a 1-year prospective follow-up with focal transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114(7):1217–25.
121. Liepert J, Bauder H, Miltner WHR, Taub E, Weiller C. Treatment-induced cortical reorganization after stroke in humans. Stroke. 2000;31(6):1210–6.
122. Jaillard A, Martin CD, Garambois K, Lebas JF, Hommel M. Vicarious function within the human primary motor cortex? a longitudinal fMRI stroke study. Brain. 2005;128(Pt 5):1122–38. doi:10.1093/brain/awh456.
123. Schaechter JD, Perdue KL, Wang R. Structural damage to the corticospinal tract correlates with bilateral sensorimotor cortex reorganization in stroke patients. Neuroimage. 2008;39(3):1370–82. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.071.
124. Weiller C, Ramsay SC, Wise RJ, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RS. Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsular infarction. Ann Neurol. 1993;33(2):181–9. doi:10.1002/ana.410330208.
125. Tombari D, Loubinoux I, Pariente J, Gerdelat A, Albucher JF, Tardy J, et al. A longitudinal fMRI study: in recovering and then in clinically stable sub-cortical stroke patients. Neuroimage. 2004;23(3):827–39. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.058.
126. Calautti C, Leroy F, Guincestre JY, Baron JC. Displacement of primary sensorimotor cortex activation after subcortical stroke: a longitudinal PET study with clinical correlation. Neuroimage. 2003;19(4):1650–4.
127. Pineiro R, Pendlebury S, Johansen-Berg H, Matthews PM. Functional MRI detects posterior shifts in primary sensorimotor cortex activation after stroke: evidence of local adaptive reorganization? Stroke. 2001;32(5):1134–9.
128. Newton JM, Ward NS, Parker GJ, Deichmann R, Alexander DC, Friston KJ, et al. Non-invasive mapping of corticofugal fibres from multiple motor areas—relevance to stroke recovery. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 7):1844–58. doi:10.1093/brain/awl106.
129. Schaechter JD, Fricker ZP, Perdue KL, Helmer KG, Vangel MG, Greve DN, et al. Microstructural status of ipsilesional and contralesional corticospinal tract correlates with motor skill in chronic stroke patients. Hum Brain Mapp. 2009;30(11):3461–74. doi:10.1002/hbm.20770.
130. Schulz R, Park CH, Boudrias MH, Gerloff C, Hummel FC, Ward NS. Assessing the integrity of corticospinal pathways from primary and secondary cortical motor areas after stroke. Stroke. 2012;43(8):2248–51. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.112.662619.
131. Schulz R, Braass H, Liuzzi G, Hoerniss V, Lechner P, Gerloff C, et al. White matter integrity of premotor-motor connections is associated with motor output in chronic stroke patients. Neuroimage Clin. 2015;7:82–6. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2014.11.006.
132. Friston KJ. Functional and effective connectivity: a review. Brain Connect. 2011;1(1):13–36. doi:10.1089/brain.2011.0008.
133. Corbetta M. Functional connectivity and neurological recovery. Dev Psychobiol. 2012;54(3):239–53. doi:10.1002/dev.20507.
134. Grefkes C, Fink GR. Connectivity-based approaches in stroke and recovery of function. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(2):206–16. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70264-3.
135. Pfurtscheller G, Stancak Jr A, Neuper C. Post-movement beta synchronization. A correlate of an idling motor area? Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;98(4):281–93.
136. Carter AR, Astafiev SV, Lang CE, Connor LT, Rengachary J, Strube MJ, et al. Resting interhemispheric functional magnetic resonance imaging connectivity predicts performance after stroke. Ann Neurol. 2010;67(3):365–75. doi:10.1002/ana.21905.
137. Burke Quinlan E, Dodakian L, See J, McKenzie A, Le V, Wojnowicz M, et al. Neural function, injury, and stroke subtype predict treatment gains after stroke. Ann Neurol. 2015;77(1):132–45. doi:10.1002/ana.24309.
138. Wadden KP, Woodward TS, Metzak PD, Lavigne KM, Lakhani B, Auriat AM, et al. Compensatory motor network connectivity is associated with motor sequence learning after subcortical stroke. Behav Brain Res. 2015;286:136–45. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.02.054.
139. Golestani AM, Tymchuk S, Demchuk A, Goodyear BG. Longitudinal evaluation of resting-state FMRI after acute stroke with hemiparesis. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2013;27(2):153–63. doi:10.1177/1545968312457827.
140. Bannister LC, Crewther SG, Gavrilescu M, Carey LM. Improvement in touch sensation after stroke is associated with resting functional connectivity changes. Front Neurol. 2015;6:165. doi:10.3389/fneur.2015.00165.
141. Carter AR, Patel KR, Astafiev SV, Snyder AZ, Rengachary J, Strube MJ, et al. Upstream dysfunction of somatomotor functional connectivity after corticospinal damage in stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2012;26(1):7–19. doi:10.1177/1545968311411054.
142. Liu J, Qin W, Zhang J, Zhang X, Yu C. Enhanced interhemispheric functional connectivity compensates for anatomical connection damages in subcortical stroke. Stroke. 2015;46(4):1045–51. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.114.007044.
143. van Meer MP, van der Marel K, Wang K, Otte WM, El Bouazati S, Roeling TA, et al. Recovery of sensorimotor function after experimental stroke correlates with restoration of resting-state interhemispheric functional connectivity. J Neurosci. 2010;30(11):3964–72. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5709-09.2010.
144. Nicolo P, Rizk S, Magnin C, Pietro MD, Schnider A, Guggisberg AG. Coherent neural oscillations predict future motor and language improvement after stroke. Brain. 2015;138(Pt 10):3048–60. doi:10.1093/brain/awv200.
145. Mikell CB, Banks GP, Frey HP, Youngerman BE, Nelp TB, Karas PJ, et al. Frontal networks associated with command following after hemorrhagic stroke. Stroke. 2015;46(1):49–57. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.114.007645.
146. Dubovik S, Pignat JM, Ptak R, Aboulafia T, Allet L, Gillabert N, et al. The behavioral significance of coherent resting-state oscillations after stroke. Neuroimage. 2012;61(1):249–57. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.03.024.
147. Gerloff C, Bushara K, Sailer A, Wassermann EM, Chen R, Matsuoka T, et al. Multimodal imaging of brain reorganization in motor areas of the contralesional hemisphere of well recovered patients after capsular stroke. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 3):791–808. doi:10.1093/brain/awh713.
148. Rehme AK, Grefkes C. Cerebral network disorders after stroke: evidence from imaging-based connectivity analyses of active and resting brain states in humans. J Physiol. 2013;591(Pt 1):17–31. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.243469.
149. Friston KJ, Harrison L, Penny W. Dynamic causal modelling. Neuroimage. 2003;19(4):1273–302.
150. Rehme AK, Eickhoff SB, Wang LE, Fink GR, Grefkes C. Dynamic causal modeling of cortical activity from the acute to the chronic stage after stroke. Neuroimage. 2011;55(3):1147–58. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.014.
151. Blicher JU, Near J, Naess-Schmidt E, Stagg CJ, Johansen-Berg H, Nielsen JF, et al. GABA levels are decreased after stroke and GABA changes during rehabilitation correlate with motor improvement. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2015;29(3):278–86. doi:10.1177/1545968314543652.
152. Dodakian L, Campbell Stewart J, Cramer SC. Motor imagery during movement activates the brain more than movement alone after stroke: a pilot study. J Rehabil Med. 2014;46(9):843–8. doi:10.2340/16501977-1844.
153. Mattioli F, Ambrosi C, Mascaro L, Scarpazza C, Pasquali P, Frugoni M, et al. Early aphasia rehabilitation is associated with functional reactivation of the left inferior frontal gyrus: a pilot study. Stroke. 2014;45(2):545–52. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.113.003192.
154. Hubbard IJ, Carey LM, Budd TW, Levi C, McElduff P, Hudson S, et al. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of early upper-limb training on stroke recovery and brain activation. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2015;29(8):703–13. doi:10.1177/1545968314562647.
155. Kononen M, Tarkka IM, Niskanen E, Pihlajamaki M, Mervaala E, Pitkanen K, et al. Functional MRI and motor behavioral changes obtained with constraint-induced movement therapy in chronic stroke. Eur J Neurol. 2012;19(4):578–86. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2011.03572.x.
156. Pellegrino G, Tomasevic L, Tombini M, Assenza G, Bravi M, Sterzi S, et al. Inter-hemispheric coupling changes associate with motor improvements after robotic stroke rehabilitation. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2012;30(6):497–510. doi:10.3233/rnn-2012-120227.
157. Sale P, Infarinato F, Del Percio C, Lizio R, Babiloni C, Foti C, et al. Electroencephalographic markers of robot-aided therapy in stroke patients for the evaluation of upper limb rehabilitation. Int J Rehabil Res. 2015;38(4):294–305. doi:10.1097/mrr.0000000000000125.
158. Varkuti B, Guan C, Pan Y, Phua KS, Ang KK, Kuah CW, et al. Resting state changes in functional connectivity correlate with movement recovery for BCI and robot-assisted upper-extremity training after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2013;27(1):53–62. doi:10.1177/1545968312445910.
159. Di Lazzaro V, Rothwell JC, Talelli P, Capone F, Ranieri F, Wallace AC, et al. Inhibitory theta burst stimulation of affected hemisphere in chronic stroke: a proof of principle, sham-controlled study. Neurosci Lett. 2013;553:148–52. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.08.013.
160. Khedr EM, Ahmed MA, Fathy N, Rothwell JC. Therapeutic trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation after acute ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2005;65(3):466–8. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000173067.84247.36.
161. Hsu WY, Cheng CH, Liao KK, Lee IH, Lin YY. Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on motor functions in patients with stroke: a meta-analysis. Stroke. 2012;43(7):1849–57. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.111.649756.
162. Scheidtmann K, Fries W, Muller F, Koenig E. Effect of levodopa in combination with physiotherapy on functional motor recovery after stroke: a prospective, randomised, double-blind study. Lancet. 2001;358(9284):787–90. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)05966-9.
163. Crisostomo EA, Duncan PW, Propst M, Dawson DV, Davis JN. Evidence that amphetamine with physical therapy promotes recovery of motor function in stroke patients. Ann Neurol. 1988;23(1):94–7. doi:10.1002/ana.410230117.
164. Chollet F, Tardy J, Albucher JF, Thalamas C, Berard E, Lamy C, et al. Fluoxetine for motor recovery after acute ischaemic stroke (FLAME): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(2):123–30. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(10)70314-8.
165. Brenneman MM, Hylin MJ, Corwin JV. The time-dependent and persistent effects of amphetamine treatment upon recovery from hemispatial neglect in rats. Behav Brain Res. 2015;293:153–61. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.032.
166. Chen J, Li Y, Katakowski M, Chen X, Wang L, Lu D, et al. Intravenous bone marrow stromal cell therapy reduces apoptosis and promotes endogenous cell proliferation after stroke in female rat. J Neurosci Res. 2003;73(6):778–86. doi:10.1002/jnr.10691.
167. Bang OY, Lee JS, Lee PH, Lee G. Autologous mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in stroke patients. Ann Neurol. 2005;57(6):874–82. doi:10.1002/ana.20501.
168. Kawamata T, Dietrich WD, Schallert T, Gotts JE, Cocke RR, Benowitz LI, et al. Intracisternal basic fibroblast growth factor enhances functional recovery and up-regulates the expression of a molecular marker of neuronal sprouting following focal cerebral infarction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94(15):8179–84.
169. Corbetta D, Sirtori V, Castellini G, Moja L, Gatti R. Constraint-induced movement therapy for upper extremities in people with stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;10:CD004433. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004433.pub3.
170. Kwakkel G, Kollen BJ, Krebs HI. Effects of robot-assisted therapy on upper limb recovery after stroke: a systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22(2):111–21. doi:10.1177/1545968307305457.
171. Mead GE, Hsieh CF, Lee R, Kutlubaev MA, Claxton A, Hankey GJ, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for stroke recovery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11:CD009286. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009286.pub2.
172. Cramer SC. An overview of therapies to promote repair of the brain after stroke. Head Neck. 2011;33 Suppl 1:S5–7. doi:10.1002/hed.21840.
173. Vu Q, Xie K, Eckert M, Zhao W, Cramer SC. Meta-analysis of preclinical studies of mesenchymal stromal cells for ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2014;82(14):1277–86. doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000000278.
174. Laible M, Grieshammer S, Seidel G, Rijntjes M, Weiller C, Hamzei F. Association of activity changes in the primary sensory cortex with successful motor rehabilitation of the hand following stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2012;26(7):881–8. doi:10.1177/1545968312437939.
175. Sawaki L, Butler AJ, Leng X, Wassenaar PA, Mohammad YM, Blanton S, et al. Constraint-induced movement therapy results in increased motor map area in subjects 3 to 9 months after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22(5):505–13. doi:10.1177/1545968308317531.
176. Wu J, Quinlan EB, Dodakian L, McKenzie A, Kathuria N, Zhou RJ, et al. Connectivity measures are robust biomarkers of cortical function and plasticity after stroke. Brain. 2015;138(Pt 8):2359–69. doi:10.1093/brain/awv156.
177. Roopun AK, Middleton SJ, Cunningham MO, LeBeau FE, Bibbig A, Whittington MA, et al. A beta2-frequency (20–30 Hz) oscillation in nonsynaptic networks of somatosensory cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(42):15646–50. doi:10.1073/pnas.0607443103.
178. Yang W, Liu TT, Song XB, Zhang Y, Li ZH, Cui ZH, et al. Comparison of different stimulation parameters of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for unilateral spatial neglect in stroke patients. J Neurol Sci. 2015;359(1-2):219–25. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2015.08.1541.
179. Thimm M, Fink GR, Kust J, Karbe H, Sturm W. Impact of alertness training on spatial neglect: a behavioural and fMRI study. Neuropsychologia. 2006;44(7):1230–46. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.09.008.
180. Clarkson AN, Overman JJ, Zhong S, Mueller R, Lynch G, Carmichael ST. AMPA receptor-induced local brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling mediates motor recovery after stroke. J Neurosci. 2011;31(10):3766–75. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5780-10.2011.
181. Biernaskie J, Chernenko G, Corbett D. Efficacy of rehabilitative experience declines with time after focal ischemic brain injury. J Neurosci. 2004;24(5):1245–54. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3834-03.2004.
182. Kozlowski DA, James DC, Schallert T. Use-dependent exaggeration of neuronal injury after unilateral sensorimotor cortex lesions. J Neurosci. 1996;16(15):4776–86.
183. Ishida A, Misumi S, Ueda Y, Shimizu Y, Cha-Gyun J, Tamakoshi K, et al. Early constraint-induced movement therapy promotes functional recovery and neuronal plasticity in a subcortical hemorrhage model rat. Behav Brain Res. 2015;284:158–66. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.02.022.
184. Wolf SL, Winstein CJ, Miller JP, Taub E, Uswatte G, Morris D, et al. Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2006;296(17):2095–104. doi:10.1001/jama.296.17.2095.
185. Wolf SL, Thompson PA, Winstein CJ, Miller JP, Blanton SR, Nichols-Larsen DS, et al. The EXCITE stroke trial: comparing early and delayed constraint-induced movement therapy. Stroke. 2010;41(10):2309–15. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.110.588723.
186. Sawaki L, Butler AJ, Leng X, Wassenaar PA, Mohammad YM, Blanton S, et al. Differential patterns of cortical reorganization following constraint-induced movement therapy during early and late period after stroke: a preliminary study. NeuroRehabilitation. 2014;35(3):415–26. doi:10.3233/nre-141132.
187. Dromerick AW, Lang CE, Birkenmeier RL, Wagner JM, Miller JP, Videen TO, et al. Very Early Constraint-Induced Movement during Stroke Rehabilitation (VECTORS): a single-center RCT. Neurology. 2009;73(3):195–201. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181ab2b27.
188. Dignam J, Copland D, McKinnon E, Burfein P, O’Brien K, Farrell A, et al. Intensive versus distributed aphasia therapy: a nonrandomized, parallel-group. dosage-controlled study. Stroke. 2015;46(8):2206–11. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.115.009522.
189. Milot MH, Cramer SC. Biomarkers of recovery after stroke. Curr Opin Neurol. 2008;21(6):654–9. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e3283186f96.
190. Burke E, Cramer SC. Biomarkers and predictors of restorative therapy effects after stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2013;13(2):329. doi:10.1007/s11910-012-0329-9.
191. Feng W, Wang J, Chhatbar PY, Doughty C, Landsittel D, Lioutas VA, et al. Corticospinal tract lesion load: an imaging biomarker for stroke motor outcomes. Ann Neurol. 2015;78(6):860–70. doi:10.1002/ana.24510.
192. Marchina S, Zhu LL, Norton A, Zipse L, Wan CY, Schlaug G. Impairment of speech production predicted by lesion load of the left arcuate fasciculus. Stroke. 2011;42(8):2251–6. doi:10.1161/strokeaha.110.606103.
193. Forkel SJ, Thiebaut de Schotten M, Dell’Acqua F, Kalra L, Murphy DG, Williams SC. Anatomical predictors of aphasia recovery: a tractography study of bilateral perisylvian language networks. Brain. 2014;137(Pt 7):2027–39. doi:10.1093/brain/awu113.
194. Saver JL, Johnston KC, Homer D, Wityk R, Koroshetz W, Truskowski LL, et al. Infarct volume as a surrogate or auxiliary outcome measure in ischemic stroke clinical trials. The RANTTAS investigators. Stroke. 1999;30(2):293–8.
195. Groisser BN, Copen WA, Singhal AB, Hirai KK, Schaechter JD. Corticospinal tract diffusion abnormalities early after stroke predict motor outcome. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2014;28(8):751–60. doi:10.1177/1545968314521896.
196. Thickbroom GW, Byrnes ML, Archer SA, Mastaglia FL. Motor outcome after subcortical stroke correlates with the degree of cortical reorganization. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115(9):2144–50. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2004.04.001.
197. Schaechter JD, van Oers CA, Groisser BN, Salles SS, Vangel MG, Moore CI, et al. Increase in sensorimotor cortex response to somatosensory stimulation over subacute poststroke period correlates with motor recovery in hemiparetic patients. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2012;26(4):325–34. doi:10.1177/1545968311421613.
198. Urbin MA, Hong X, Lang CE, Carter AR. Resting-state functional connectivity and its association with multiple domains of upper-extremity function in chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2014;28(8):761–9. doi:10.1177/1545968314522349.
199. Kim DY, Quinlan EB, Gramer R, Cramer SC. BDNF Val66Met polymorphism is related to motor system function after stroke. Phys Ther. 2015. doi:10.2522/ptj.20150135.
200. Biswal B, Yetkin FZ, Haughton VM, Hyde JS. Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magn Reson Med. 1995;34(4):537–41.