Constraints to and conservation implications for climate change adaptation in plants

Conservation Genetics

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 305-320

  Christmas, Matthew J ^a   Breed, Martin F ^a   Lowe, Andrew J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Adaptive capacity; Ecological restoration; Gene flow; Genetic resource management; Genomics; Global change

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT; BIODIVERSITY; CLIMATE CHANGE; CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE; ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION; GENE FLOW; GENETIC RESOURCE; GENOMICS; GLOBAL CHANGE; PLANT COMMUNITY; RESTORATION ECOLOGY;

EID: 84961156886     PISSN: 15660621     EISSN: 15729737     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10592-015-0782-5     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Afkhami ME, McIntyre PJ, Strauss SY (2014) Mutualist-mediated effects on species’ range limits across large geographic scales. Ecol Lett 17:1265–1273
2. Aguilar R, Quesada M, Ashworth L, Herrerias-Diego Y, Lobo J (2008) Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation in plant populations: susceptible signals in plant traits and methodological approaches. Mol Ecol 17:5177–5188
3. Aitken SN, Whitlock MC (2013) Assisted gene flow to facilitate local adaptation to climate change. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 44:367–388
4. Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis-McLane S (2008) Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evol Appl 1:95–111
5. Alberto FJ, Aitken SN, Alía R, González-Martínez SC, Hänninen H, Kremer A, Lefèvre F, Lenormand T, Yeaman S, Whetten R, Savolainen O (2013) Potential for evolutionary responses to climate change - evidence from tree populations. Glob Change Biol 19:1645–1661
6. Alsos IG, Ehrich D, Thuiller W, Eidesen PB, Tribsch A, Schönswetter P, Lagaye C, Taberlet P, Brochmann C (2012) Genetic consequences of climate change for northern plants. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:2042–2051
7. Anderson JT, Willis JH, Mitchell-Olds T (2011) Evolutionary genetics of plant adaptation. Trends Genet 27:258–266
8. Anderson JT, Panetta AM, Mitchell-Olds T (2012) Evolutionary and ecological responses to anthropogenic climate change: update on anthropogenic climate change. Plant Physiol 160:1728–1740
9. Bacles CFE, Lowe AJ, Ennos RA (2006) Effective seed dispersal across a fragmented landscape. Science 311:628
10. Barrett RD, Schluter D (2008) Adaptation from standing genetic variation. Trends Ecol Evol 23:38–44
11. Beckage B, Osborne B, Gavin DG, Pucko C, Siccama T, Perkins T (2008) A rapid upward shift of a forest ecotone during 40 years of warming in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:4197–4202
12. Bennington CC, Fetcher N, Vavrek MC, Shaver GR, Cummings KJ, McGraw JB (2012) Home site advantage in two long-lived arctic plant species: results from two 30-year reciprocal transplant studies. J Ecol 100:841–851
13. Boeye J, Travis JMJ, Stoks R, Bonte D (2012) More rapid climate change promotes evolutionary rescue through selection for increased dispersal distance. Evol Appl 6:353–364
14. Bossdorf O, Richards CL, Pigliucci M (2008) Epigenetics for ecologists. Ecol Lett 11:106–115
15. Bouck A, Vision T (2007) The molecular ecologist’s guide to expressed sequence tags. Mol Ecol 16:907–924
16. Bragg JG, Supple MA, Andrew RL, Borevitz JO (2015) Genomic variation across landscapes: insights and applications. New Phytol 207:953–967
17. Breed MF, Ottewell KM, Gardner MG, Lowe AJ (2011) Clarifying climate change adaptation responses for scattered trees in modified landscapes. J Appl Ecol 48:637–641
18. Breed MF, Gardner MG, Ottewell KM, Navarro CM, Lowe AJ (2012a) Shifts in reproductive assurance strategies and inbreeding costs associated with habitat fragmentation in Central American mahogany. Ecol Lett 15:444–452
19. Breed MF, Ottewell KM, Gardner MG, Marklund MH, Stead MG, Harris JB, Lowe AJ (2012b) Mating system and early viability resistance to habitat fragmentation in a bird-pollinated eucalypt. Heredity. doi:10.1038/hdy.2012.72
20. Breed MF, Stead MG, Ottewell KM, Gardner MG, Lowe AJ (2012c) Which provenance and where? Seed sourcing strategies for revegetation in a changing environment. Conserv Genet 14:1–10
21. Breed MF, Christmas MJ, Lowe AJ (2014) Higher levels of multiple paternities increase seedling survival in the long-lived tree Eucalyptus gracilis. PLoS One 9:e90478
22. Breed MF, Ottewell KM, Gardner MG, Marklund MHK, Dormontt EE, Lowe A (2015) Mating patterns and pollinator mobility are critical traits in forest fragmentation genetics. Heredity 115:100–107
23. Bresson CC, Vitasse Y, Kremer A, Delzon S (2011) To what extent is altitudinal variation of functional traits driven by genetic adaptation in European oak and beech? Tree Physiol 31:1164–1174
24. Broadhurst LM, Lowe A, Coates DJ, Cunningham SA, McDonald M, Vesk PA, Yates C (2008) Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential. Evol Appl 1:587–597
25. Brook BW, Sodhi NS, Bradshaw CJ (2008) Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends Ecol Evol 23:453–460
26. Brooker RW, Maestre FT, Callaway RM, Lortie CL, Cavieres LA, Kunstler G, Liancourt P, Tielbörger K, Travis JM, Anthelme F (2008) Facilitation in plant communities: the past, the present, and the future. J Ecol 96:18–34
27. Brown J, Millner F (1989) Aspects of the meteorology and hydrology of the Australian Alps. Australian Alps National Parks Liaison Committee, Canberra, pp 297–329
28. Brudvig LA, Damschen EI, Tewksbury JJ, Haddad NM, Levey DJ (2009) Landscape connectivity promotes plant biodiversity spillover into non-target habitats. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:9328–9332
29. Byrne M, Stone L, Millar MA (2011) Assessing genetic risk in revegetation. J Appl Ecol 48:1365–1373
30. Cahill AE, Aiello-Lammens ME, Fisher-Reid MC, Hua X, Karanewsky CJ, Ryu HY, Sbeglia GC, Spagnolo F, Waldron JB, Warsi O (2013) How does climate change cause extinction? Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 280. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1890
31. Chen J, Källman T, Ma X, Gyllenstrand N, Zaina G, Morgante M, Bousquet J, Eckert A, Wegrzyn J, Neale D (2012) Disentangling the roles of history and local selection in shaping clinal variation of allele frequencies and gene expression in Norway spruce (Picea abies). Genetics 191:865–881
32. Corlett RT, Westcott DA (2013) Will plant movements keep up with climate change? Trends Ecol Evol 28:482–488
33. Damschen EI, Haddad NM, Orrock JL, Tewksbury JJ, Levey DJ (2006) Corridors increase plant species richness at large scales. Science 313:1284–1286
34. Davies S, White A, Lowe A (2004) An investigation into effects of long-distance seed dispersal on organelle population genetic structure and colonization rate: a model analysis. Heredity 93:566–576
35. Davis MB (1981) Quaternary history and the stability of forest communities. Forest Succession. Springer, New York, pp 132–153
36. Davis MB, Shaw RG (2001) Range shifts and adaptive responses to quaternary climate change. Science 292:673–679
37. Dawson TP, Jackson ST, House JI, Prentice IC, Mace GM (2011) Beyond predictions: biodiversity conservation in a changing climate. Science 332:53–58
38. Eckert CG, Kalisz S, Geber MA, Sargent R, Elle E, Cheptou P-O, Goodwillie C, Johnston MO, Kelly JK, Moeller DA (2010) Plant mating systems in a changing world. Trends Ecol Evol 25:35–43
39. Etterson JR (2000) Evolutionary Potential of the Annual Legume, Chamaecrista Fasciculata, in Relation to Global Warming. Doctoral Thesis, University of Minnesota
40. Etterson JR (2004) Evolutionary potential of Chamaecrista fasciculata in relation to climate change. I. Clinal patterns of selection along an environmental gradient in the Great Plains. Evolution 58:1446–1456
41. Etterson JR, Shaw RG (2001) Constraint to adaptive evolution in response to global warming. Science 294:151–154
42. Feeley KJ, Silman MR (2010) Land-use and climate change effects on population size and extinction risk of Andean plants. Glob Change Biol 16:3215–3222
43. Fieldes MA, Amyot LM (1999) Epigenetic control of early flowering in flax lines induced by 5-azacytidine applied to germinating seed. J Hered 90:199–206
44. Frankham R, Ballou JD, Eldridge MD, Lacy RC, Ralls K, Dudash MR, Fenster CB (2011) Predicting the probability of outbreeding depression. Conserv Biol 25:465–475
45. Franks SJ, Hoffmann AA (2012) Genetics of climate change adaptation. Annu Rev Genet 46:185–208
46. Franks SJ, Sim S, Weis AE (2007) Rapid evolution of flowering time by an annual plant in response to a climate fluctuation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104:1278–1282
47. Franks SJ, Weber JJ, Aitken SN (2014) Evolutionary and plastic responses to climate change in terrestrial plant populations. Evol Appl 7:123–139
48. Frei ER, Ghazoul J, Matter P, Heggli M, Pluess AR (2014) Plant population differentiation and climate change: responses of grassland species along an elevational gradient. Glob Change Biol 20:441–455
49. Ghalambor CK, McKay JK, Carroll SP, Reznick DN (2007) Adaptive versus non-adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new environments. Funct Ecol 21:394–407
50. Gilbert-Norton L, Wilson R, Stevens JR, Beard KH (2010) A meta-analytic review of corridor effectiveness. Conserv Biol 24:660–668
51. Guja LK, Broadhurst LM, Brown AH, Bush D, Cochrane A, Merritt DJ, Offord CA, Rossetto M, Wallace MJ, Wood J (2015) Genetic diversity is a significant but not the only consideration for effective ex situ plant conservation: response to Hoban and Schlarbaum. Biol Conserv 184:467–468
52. Hamann A, Roberts DR, Barber QE, Carroll C, Nielsen SE (2015) Velocity of climate change algorithms for guiding conservation and management. Glob Change Biol 21:997–1004
53. Hawkes JG, Maxted N, Ford-Lloyd BV (2012) The ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources. Springer Science and Business Media, Netherlands
54. Hennessy K, Whetton P, Smith I, Bathols J, Hutchinson M, Sharples J (2003) The impact of climate change on snow conditions in mainland Australia. CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale
55. Hermisson J, Pennings PS (2005) Soft sweeps molecular population genetics of adaptation from standing genetic variation. Genetics 169:2335–2352
56. Hewitt G (2000) The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages. Nature 405:907–913
57. Hewitt G (2004) Genetic consequences of climatic oscillations in the Quaternary. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 359:183–195
58. Hickling R, Roy DB, Hill JK, Fox R, Thomas CD (2006) The distributions of a wide range of taxonomic groups are expanding polewards. Glob Change Biol 12:450–455
59. Higgins SI, Lavorel S, Revilla E (2003) Estimating plant migration rates under habitat loss and fragmentation. Oikos 101:354–366
60. Hilty JA, Lidicker WZ, Merenlender AM (2006) Corridor ecology: the science and practice of linking landscapes for biodiversity conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC
61. Hoban S, Schlarbaum S (2014) Optimal sampling of seeds from plant populations for ex situ conservation of genetic biodiversity, considering realistic population structure. Biol Conserv 177:90–99
62. Hoegh-Guldberg O, Hughes L, McIntyre S, Lindenmayer D, Parmesan C, Possingham H, Thomas C (2008) Assisted colonization and rapid climate change. Science 321:345–346
63. Hoffmann AA, Sgro CM (2011) Climate change and evolutionary adaptation. Nature 470:479–485
64. Hoffmann A, Griffin P, Dillon S, Catullo R, Rane R, Byrne M, Jordan R, Oakeshott J, Weeks A, Joseph L (2015) A framework for incorporating evolutionary genomics into biodiversity conservation and management. Clim Change Responses 2:1–24
65. Honnay O, Jacquemyn H (2007) Susceptibility of common and rare plant species to the genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation. Conserv Biol 21:823–831
66. Hudson ME (2008) Sequencing breakthroughs for genomic ecology and evolutionary biology. Mol Ecol Resour 8:3–17
67. Ibanez I, Clark JS, Dietze MC (2008) Evaluating the sources of potential migrant species: implications under climate change. Ecol Appl 18:1664–1678
68. Ibanez I, Clark JS, Dietze MC (2009) Estimating colonization potential of migrant tree species. Glob Change Biol 15:1173–1188
69. Iverson LR, Schwartz M, Prasad AM (2004a) How fast and far might tree species migrate in the eastern United States due to climate change? Glob Ecol Biogeogr 13:209–219
70. Iverson LR, Schwartz M, Prasad AM (2004b) Potential colonization of newly available tree-species habitat under climate change: an analysis for five eastern US species. Landsc Ecol 19:787–799
71. Jump AS, Peñuelas J (2005) Running to stand still: adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change. Ecol Lett 8:1010–1020
72. Kelly CK, Chase MW, De Bruijn A, Fay MF, Woodward FI (2003) Temperature-based population segregation in birch. Ecol Lett 6:87–89
73. King G, Herstrom A (1997) Holocene migration rates objectively determined from fossil pollen data. Springer-Verlag, New York
74. Kremer A, Ronce O, Robledo-Arnuncio JJ, Guillaume F, Bohrer G, Nathan R, Bridle JR, Gomulkiewicz R, Klein EK, Ritland K (2012) Long-distance gene flow and adaptation of forest trees to rapid climate change. Ecol Lett 15:378–392
75. Kremer A, Potts BM, Delzon S (2014) Genetic divergence in forest trees: understanding the consequences of climate change. Funct Ecol 28:22–36
76. Krushelnycky PD, Loope LL, Giambelluca TW, Starr F, Starr K, Drake DR, Taylor AD, Robichaux RH (2013) Climate-associated population declines reverse recovery and threaten future of an iconic high-elevation plant. Glob Change Biol 19:911–922
77. Kuparinen A, Savolainen O, Schurr FM (2010) Increased mortality can promote evolutionary adaptation of forest trees to climate change. Forest Ecol Manag 259:1003–1008
78. Lau JA, Lennon JT (2012) Rapid responses of soil microorganisms improve plant fitness in novel environments. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109:14058–14062
79. Leimu R, Fischer M (2008) A meta-analysis of local adaptation in plants. PLoS One 3:e4010
80. Lewis PO, Crawford DJ (1995) Pleistocene refugium endemics exhibit greater allozymic diversity than widespread congeners in the genus Polygonella (Polygonaceae). Am J Bot 82:141–149
81. Li D-Z, Pritchard HW (2009) The science and economics of ex situ plant conservation. Trends Plant Sci 14:614–621
82. Loarie SR, Duffy PB, Hamilton H, Asner GP, Field CB, Ackerly DD (2009) The velocity of climate change. Nature 462:1052–1055
83. Lovell JT, Juenger TE, Michaels SD, Lasky JR, Platt A, Richards JH, Yu X, Easlon HM, Sen S, McKay JK (2013) Pleiotropy of FRIGIDA enhances the potential for multivariate adaptation. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 280:20131043
84. Lowe A, Boshier D, Ward M, Bacles C, Navarro C (2005a) Genetic resource loss following habitat fragmentation and degradation; reconciling predicted theory with empirical evidence. Heredity 95:255–273
85. Lowe A, Unsworth C, Gerber S, Davies S, Munro R, Kelleher C, King A, Brewer S, White A, Cottrell J (2005b) Route, speed and mode of oak postglacial colonisation across the British Isles: integrating molecular ecology, palaeoecology and modelling approaches. Trans Proc Bot Soc Edinb Bot Soc Edinb Trans 57:59–81
86. Lowe AJ, Cavers S, Boshier D, Breed MF, Hollingsworth P (2015) The resilience of forest fragmentation genetics—no longer a paradox—we were just looking in the wrong place. Heredity 115:97–99
87. MacDonald GM (1993) Fossil pollen analysis and the reconstruction of plant invasions. Academic Press, San Diego
88. Maron JL, Vilà M, Bommarco R, Elmendorf S, Beardsley P (2004) Rapid evolution of an invasive plant. Ecol Monogr 74:261–280
89. Martin JA, Wang Z (2011) Next-generation transcriptome assembly. Nat Rev Genet 12:671–682
90. Mayhew PJ, Jenkins GB, Benton TG (2008) A long-term association between global temperature and biodiversity, origination and extinction in the fossil record. Proc R Soc B 275:47–53
91. McLachlan JS, Clark JS, Manos PS (2005) Molecular indicators of tree migration capacity under rapid climate change. Ecology 86:2088–2098
92. McLaughlin JF, Hellmann JJ, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR (2002) Climate change hastens population extinctions. Proc Natl Acad Sci 99:6070–6074
93. Menz MH, Phillips RD, Winfree R, Kremen C, Aizen MA, Johnson SD, Dixon KW (2011) Reconnecting plants and pollinators: challenges in the restoration of pollination mutualisms. Trends Plant Sci 16:4–12
94. Mittell EA, Nakagawa S, Hadfield JD (2015) Are molecular markers useful predictors of adaptive potential. Ecol Lett 18:772–778
95. Molinier J, Ries G, Zipfel C, Hohn B (2006) Transgeneration memory of stress in plants. Nature 442:1046–1049
96. Montesinos-Navarro A, Wig J, Pico FX, Tonsor SJ (2011) Arabidopsis thaliana populations show clinal variation in a climatic gradient associated with altitude. New Phytol 189:282–294
97. Nei M, Maruyama T, Chakraborty R (1975) The bottleneck effect and genetic variability in populations. Evolution 29:1–10
98. Nicotra AB, Atkin OK, Bonser SP, Davidson AM, Finnegan EJ, Mathesius U, Poot P, Purugganan MD, Richards CL, Valladares F, van Kleunen M (2010) Plant phenotypic plasticity in a changing climate. Trends Plant Sci 15:684–692
99. Norberg J, Urban MC, Vellend M, Klausmeier CA, Loeuille N (2012) Eco-evolutionary responses of biodiversity to climate change. Nat Clim Change 2:747–751
100. Pardi MI, Smith FA (2012) Paleoecology in an era of climate change: how the past can provide insights into the future. Paleontology in Ecology and Conservation. Springer, Berlin, p 93–116
101. Parmesan C (2006) Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 37:637–669
102. Parmesan C, Yohe G (2003) A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421:37–42
103. Pearson RG, Dawson TP (2005) Long-distance plant dispersal and habitat fragmentation: identifying conservation targets for spatial landscape planning under climate change. Biol Conserv 123:389–401
104. Pellissier L, Pinto-Figueroa E, Niculita-Hirzel H, Moora M, Villard L, Goudet J, Guex N, Pagni M, Xenarios I, Sanders I (2013) Plant species distributions along environmental gradients: do belowground interactions with fungi matter? Front Plant Sci 4:500
105. Petit RJ, Hampe A (2006) Some evolutionary consequences of being a tree. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 37:187–214
106. Petit RJ, Brewer S, Bordács S, Burg K, Cheddadi R, Coart E, Cottrell J, Csaikl UM, van Dam B, Deans JD (2002) Identification of refugia and post-glacial colonisation routes of European white oaks based on chloroplast DNA and fossil pollen evidence. For Ecol Manag 156:49–74
107. Phillips BL, Brown GP, Shine R (2010) Life-history evolution in range-shifting populations. Ecology 91:1617–1627
108. Pickering C, Hill W, Green K (2008) Vascular plant diversity and climate change in the alpine zone of the Snowy Mountains, Australia. Biodivers Conserv 17:1627–1644
109. Pounds JA, Bustamante MR, Coloma LA, Consuegra JA, Fogden MP, Foster PN, La Marca E, Masters KL, Merino-Viteri A, Puschendorf R, Ron SR, Sanchez-Azofeifa GA, Still CJ, Young BE (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 439:161–167
110. Raven PH, Guerrant EO, Havens K, Maunder M (2013) Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild. Island Press, Washington
111. Reed TE, Schindler DE, Waples RS (2011) Interacting effects of phenotypic plasticity and evolution on population persistence in a changing climate. Conserv Biol 25:56–63
112. Rejmánek M, Richardson DM (1996) What attributes make some plant species more invasive? Ecology 77:1655–1661
113. Renton M, Shackelford N, Standish RJ (2012) Habitat restoration will help some functional plant types persist under climate change in fragmented landscapes. Glob Change Biol 18:2057–2070
114. Renton M, Childs S, Standish R, Shackelford N (2013) Plant migration and persistence under climate change in fragmented landscapes: does it depend on the key point of vulnerability within the lifecycle? Ecol Model 249:50–58
115. Richter S, Kipfer T, Wohlgemuth T, Guerrero CC, Ghazoul J, Moser B (2012) Phenotypic plasticity facilitates resistance to climate change in a highly variable environment. Oecologia 169:269–279
116. Rico L, Ogaya R, Barbeta A, Penuelas J (2014) Changes in DNA methylation fingerprint of Quercus ilex trees in response to experimental field drought simulating projected climate change. Plant Biol 16:419–427
117. Rival A, Jaligot E, Beulé T (2012) Plant epigenetics: beyond the double helix. Acta Hortic 929:315–325
118. Savolainen O, Lascoux M, Merila J (2013) Ecological genomics of local adaptation. Nat Rev Genet 14:807–820
119. Schiffers K, Bourne EC, Lavergne S, Thuiller W, Travis JMJ (2013) Limited evolutionary rescue of locally adapted populations facing climate change. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 368:20120083
120. Schoville SD, Bonin A, François O, Lobreaux S, Melodelima C, Manel S (2012) Adaptive genetic variation on the landscape: methods and cases. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 43:23–43
121. Schwartz MW, Hellmann JJ, McLachlan JM, Sax DF, Borevitz JO, Brennan J, Camacho AE, Ceballos G, Clark JR, Doremus H (2012) Managed relocation: integrating the scientific, regulatory, and ethical challenges. Bioscience 62:732–743
122. Sexton JP, Strauss SY, Rice KJ (2011) Gene flow increases fitness at the warm edge of a species’ range. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:11704–11709
123. Sexton JP, Hangartner SB, Hoffmann AA (2014) Genetic isolation by environment or distance: which pattern of gene flow is most common? Evolution 68:1–15
124. Shafer AB, Wolf JB, Alves PC, Bergström L, Bruford MW, Brännström I, Colling G, Dalén L, De Meester L, Ekblom R (2015) Genomics and the challenging translation into conservation practice. Trends Ecol Evol 30:78–87
125. Sork VL, Smouse PE (2006) Genetic analysis of landscape connectivity in tree populations. Landsc Ecol 21:821–836
126. Steane DA, Potts BM, McLean E, Prober SM, Stock WD, Vaillancourt RE, Byrne M (2014) Genome-wide scans detect adaptation to aridity in a widespread forest tree species. Mol Ecol 23:2500–2513
127. Sturm M, Racine C, Tape K (2001) Increasing shrub abundance in the Arctic. Nature 411:546–547
128. Tewksbury JJ, Levey DJ, Haddad NM, Sargent S, Orrock JL, Weldon A, Danielson BJ, Brinkerhoff J, Damschen EI, Townsend P (2002) Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 99:12923–12926
129. Thomas CD (2011) Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities. Trends Ecol Evol 26:216–221
130. Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BFN, De Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427:145–148
131. Thumma BR, Sharma N, Southerton SG (2012) Transcriptome sequencing of Eucalyptus camaldulensis seedlings subjected to water stress reveals functional single nucleotide polymorphisms and genes under selection. BMC Genom 13:364
132. Tiffin P, Ross-Ibarra J (2014) Advances and limits of using population genetics to understand local adaptation. Trends Ecol Evol 29:673–680
133. Townsend PA, Levey DJ (2005) An experimental test of whether habitat corridors affect pollen transfer. Ecology 86:466–475
134. Urban MC, Tewksbury JJ, Sheldon KS (2012) On a collision course: competition and dispersal differences create no-analogue communities and cause extinctions during climate change. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:2072–2080
135. Uribe-Salas D, Sáenz-Romero C, González-Rodríguez A, Téllez-Valdéz O, Oyama K (2008) Foliar morphological variation in the white oak Quercus rugosa Née (Fagaceae) along a latitudinal gradient in Mexico: potential implications for management and conservation. For Ecol Manag 256:2121–2126
136. Vitti JJ, Grossman SR, Sabeti PC (2013) Detecting natural selection in genomic data. Annu Rev Genet 47:97–120
137. Vranckx G, Jacquemyn H, Muys B, Honnay O (2012) Meta-analysis of susceptibility of woody plants to loss of genetic diversity through habitat fragmentation. Conserv Biol 26:228–237
138. Walther GR (2003) Plants in a warmer world. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst 6:169–185
139. Wang T, O’Neill GA, Aitken SN (2010) Integrating environmental and genetic effects to predict responses of tree populations to climate. Ecol Appl 20:153–163
140. Wang R, Compton SG, Chen XY (2011) Fragmentation can increase spatial genetic structure without decreasing pollen-mediated gene flow in a wind-pollinated tree. Mol Ecol 20:4421–4432
141. Weeks AR, Sgro CM, Young AG, Frankham R, Mitchell NJ, Miller KA, Byrne M, Coates DJ, Eldridge MD, Sunnucks P, Breed MF, James EA, Hoffmann AA (2011) Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective. Evol Appl 4:709–725
142. Whiteley AR, Fitzpatrick SW, Funk WC, Tallmon DA (2015) Genetic rescue to the rescue. Trends Ecol Evol 30:42–49
143. Willi Y, Van Buskirk J, Hoffmann AA (2006) Limits to the adaptive potential of small populations. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 37:433–458
144. Williams MI, Dumroese RK (2013) Preparing for climate change: forestry and assisted migration. J For 111:287–297
145. Woods E, Hastings AP, Turley NE, Heard SB, Agrawal AA (2012) Adaptive geographical clines in the growth and defense of a native plant. Ecol Monogr 82:149–168
146. Wright S (1943) Isolation by distance. Genetics 28:114
147. Yakovlev IA, Asante DK, Fossdal CG, Junttila O, Johnsen O (2011) Differential gene expression related to an epigenetic memory affecting climatic adaptation in Norway spruce. Plant Sci 180:132–139
148. Zhu K, Woodall CW, Clark JS (2012) Failure to migrate: lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change. Glob Change Biol 18:1042–1052