Facilitation in plant communities: The past, the present, and the future

Journal of Ecology

Volumn 96, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 18-34

  Brooker, Rob W ^a   Maestre, Fernando T ^b   Callaway, Ragan M ^c   Lortie, Christopher L ^d   Cavieres, Lohengrin A ^e   Kunstler, Georges ^f   Liancourt, Pierre ^g   Tielbörger, Katja ^g   Travis, Justin M J ^h   Anthelme, Fabien ⁱ   Armas, Cristina ^j   Coll, Lluis ^k   Corcket, Emmanuel ^l   Delzon, Sylvain ^l   Forey, Estelle ^l   Kikvidze, Zaal ^m   Olofsson, Johan ⁿ   Pugnaire, Francisco ^m   Quiroz, Constanza L ^e   Saccone, Patrick ^f   Schiffers, Katja ^o   Seifan, Merav ^g   Touzard, Blaize ^l   Michalet, Richard ^l   more..

^a Macaulay Land Use Research Institute   (United Kingdom)

^b ESCET   (Spain)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

^d YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CONCEPCIÓN   (Chile)

^f Cemagref   (France)

^g UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

^h UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

ⁱ INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE POUR LE DÉVELOPPEMENT   (France)

^j DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^k CENTRE TECNOLÒGIC FORESTAL DE CATALUNYA   (Spain)

^l UNIVERSITÉ DE BORDEAUX   (France)

^m DEPARTAMENTO DE ECOLOGÍA FUNCIONAL Y EVOLUTIVA   (Spain)

ⁿ UMEÅ UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^o UNIVERSITY OF POTSDAM   (Germany)

more..

Author keywords

Competition; Disturbance; Ecological theory; Environmental change; Environmental gradients; Facilitation; Plant communities; Positive plant interactions; Review; Stress

Indexed keywords

COEXISTENCE; ECOLOGICAL THEORY; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENT; FACILITATION; GLOBAL CHANGE; INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTION; PLANT COMMUNITY; RESEARCH WORK;

EID: 37149042549     PISSN: 00220477     EISSN: 13652745     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01295.x     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Aarssen, L.W. (1992) Causes and consequences of variation in competitive ability in plant communities. Journal of Vegetation Science, 3, 165 174.
2. ACIA (2004) Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Aerts, R., Negussie, A., Maes, W., November, E., Hermy, M. Muys, B. (2007) Restoration of dry Afromontane forest using pioneer shrubs as nurse-plants for Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata. Restoration Ecology, 15, 129 138.
4. Armas, C., Ordiales, R. Pugnaire, F.I. (2004) Measuring plant interactions: a new comparative index. Ecology, 85, 2682 2686.
5. Armas, C. Pugnaire, F.I. (2005) Plant interactions govern population dynamics in a semi-arid plant community. Journal of Ecology, 93, 978 989.
6. Barchuk, A.H., Valiente-Banuet, A. Díaz, M.P. (2005) Effect of shrubs and seasonal variability of rainfall on the establishment of Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco in two edaphically contrasting environments. Austral Ecology, 30, 695 705.
7. Barton, N.H. Keightley, P.D. (2002) Understanding quantitative genetic variation. Nature Reviews Genetics, 3, 11 21.
8. Bertness, M.D. (1998) Searching for the role of positive interactions in plant communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 133 134.
9. Bertness, M. Callaway, R.M. (1994) Positive interactions in communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 191 193.
10. Bertness, M. Ewanchuk, P.J. (2002) Latitudinal and climate-driven variation in the strength and nature of biological interactions in New England salt marshes. Oecologia, 132, 392 401.
11. Bret-Harte, M.S., García, E.A., Scaré, V.M., Whorley, J.R., Wagern, J.L., Lipper, S.C. Chapin, F.S. (2004) Plant and soils responses to neighbour removal and fertilization in Alaskan tussock tundra. Journal of Ecology, 92, 635 647.
12. Brooker, R.W. (2006) Plant-plant interactions and environmental change. New Phytologist, 171, 271 289.
13. Brooker, R.W. Callaghan, T.V. (1998) The balance between positive and negative plant interactions and its relationship to environmental gradients: a model. Oikos, 81, 196 207.
14. Brooker, R., Kikvidze, Z., Pugnaire, F.I., Callaway, R.M., Choler, P., Lortie, C.J. Michalet, R. (2005) The importance of importance. Oikos, 109, 63 70.
15. Brooker, R.W., Scott, D., Palmer, S.C.F. Swaine, E. (2006) Transient facilitative effects of heather on Scots pine along a grazing disturbance gradient in Scottish moorland. Journal of Ecology, 94, 637 645.
16. Brooker, R.W., Travis, J.M.J., Clark, E.J. Dytham, C. (2007) Modelling species' range shifts in a changing climate: the impacts of biotic interactions, dispersal distance and the rate of climate change. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 245, 59 65.
17. Bruno, J.F., Stachowicz, J.J. Bertness, M.D. (2003) Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18, 119 125.
18. Callaway, R.M. (1995) Positive interactions among plants. Botanical Review, 61, 306 349.
19. Callaway, R.M. (1997) Positive interactions in plant communities and the individualistic-continuum concept. Oecologia, 112, 143 149.
20. Callaway, R.M. (1998) Are positive interactions species-specific? Oikos, 82, 202 207.
21. Callaway, R.M. (2007) Positive Interactions and Interdependence in Plant Communities. Springer, Dordrecht.
22. Callaway, R.M. Aschehoug, E.T. (2000) Invasive plants versus their new and old neighbors: a mechanism for exotic invasion. Science, 290, 521 523.
23. Callaway, R.M., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Kikvidze, Z., Lortie, C.J., Michalet, R., Paolini, L., Pugnaire, F.I., Newingham, B., Aschehoug, E.T., Armas, C., Kikodze, D. Cook, B.J. (2002) Positive interactions among alpine plants increase with stress. Nature, 417, 844 848.
24. Callaway, R.M. Howard, T.G. (2006) Competitive networks, indirect interactions, and allelopathy: a microbial viewpoint on plant communities. Progress in Botany, 68, 317 335.
25. Callaway, R.M. Pennings, S.C. (2000) Facilitation may buffer competitive effects: indirect and diffuse interactions among salt marsh plants. American Naturalist, 156, 416 424.
26. Callaway, R.M. Ridenour, W.M. (2004) Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of increased competitive ability. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2, 436 443.
27. Callaway, R.M. Walker, L.R. (1997) Competition and facilitation: a synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology, 78, 1958 1965.
28. Castro, J., Zamora, R., Hódar, J.A., Gómez, J.M. Gómez-Aparicio, L. (2004) Benefits of using shrubs as nurse plants for reforestation in Mediterranean mountains: a 4-year study. Restoration Ecology, 12, 352 358.
29. Cavieres, L., Arroyo, M.T.K., Penaloza, A., Molina-Montenegro, M. Torres, C. (2002) Nurse effect of Bolax gummifera cushion plants in the alpine vegetation of the Chilean Patagonian Andes. Journal of Vegetation Science, 13, 547 554.
30. Cavieres, L., Badano, E.I., Sierra-Almeida, A., Gómez- González, S. Molina-Montenegro, M.A. (2006) Positive interactions between alpine plant species and the nurse cushion Laretia acaulis do not increase with elevation in the Andes of central Chile. New Phytologist, 169, 59 69.
31. Cavieres, L.A., Badano, E.I., Sierra-Almeida, A. Molina-Montenegro, M.A. (2007) Microclimatic modifications of cushion plants and their consequences for seedlings survival of native and non-native plants in the high-Andes of central Chile. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 39, 229 236.
32. Cavieres, L.A., Quiroz, C.L., Molina-Montenegro, M.A., Muñoz, A.A. Pauchard, A. (2005) Nurse effect of the native cushion plant Azorella monantha on the invasive non-native Taraxacum officinale in the high-Andes of central Chile. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 7, 217 226.
33. CBD (2003) Interlinkages Between Biological Diversity and Climate Change. Advice on the Integration of Biodiversity Considerations Into the Implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal.
34. Chapin, F.S., Shaver, G.R., Giblin, A.E., Nadelhoffer, K.J. Laundre, J.A. (1995) Response of Arctic tundra to experimental and observed change in climate. Ecology, 76, 694 711.
35. Chapin, F.S. III, Walker, L.W., Fastie, C.L. Sharman, L.C. (1994) Mechanisms of primary succession following degalciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecological Monographs, 64, 149 175.
36. Chiariello, N.R., Hickman, J.C. Mooney, H. (1982) Endomycorrhizal role for interspecific transfer of phosphorus in a community of annual plants. Science, 217, 941 943.
37. Choler, P., Michalet, R. Callaway, R.M. (2001) Facilitation and competition on gradients in alpine plant communities. Ecology, 82, 3295 3308.
38. Clements, F.E. (1916) Plant Succession. Carnegie Institute Publication #242. Carnegie Institute, Washington.
39. Colautti, R.I., Ricciardi, A., Grigorovich, I.A. MacIsaac, H.J. (2004) Is invasion success explained by the enemy release hypothesis? Ecology Letters, 7, 721 7333.
40. Connell, J.H. Slatyer, R.O. (1977) Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. American Naturalist, 111, 1119 1144.
41. Connolly, J., Wayne, P. Bazzaz, F.A. (2001) Interspecific competition in plants: How well do current methods answer fundamental questions? American Naturalist, 157, 107 125.
42. Corcket, E., Callaway, R.M. Michalet, R. (2003b) Insect herbivory and grass competition in a calcareous grassland: results from a plant removal experiment. Acta Oecologica, 24, 139 146.
43. Corcket, E., Liancourt, P., Callaway, R. Michalet, R. (2003a) The relative importance of competition for two dominant grass species as affected by environmental manipulations in the field. Ecoscience, 10, 186 194.
44. Cortina, J., Maestre, F.T., Vallejo, V.R., Baeza, J., Valdecantos, A. Pérez-Devesa, M. (2006) Ecosystem function and restoration success: are they related? Journal for Nature Conservation, 14, 152 160.
45. Crain, C.M. Bertness, M.D. (2006) Ecosystem engineering across environmental gradients: Implications for conservation and management. Bioscience, 56, 211 218.
46. Crocker, R.L. Major, J. (1955) Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Journal of Ecology, 43, 427 448.
47. Czaran, T.L., Hoekstra, R.F. Pagie, L. (2002) Chemical warfare between microbes promotes biodiversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 786 790.
48. Daehler, C.C. (2003) Performance comparisons of co-occurring native and alien invasive plants: implications for conservation and restoration. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 34, 183 211.
49. Densmore, R.V. (2005) Succession on subalpine placer mine spoil: Effects of revegetation with Alnus viridis, Alaska, USA. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 37, 297 303.
50. Diaz, S., Cabido, M. Casonoves, F. (1999) Functional implications of trait-environment linkages in plant communities. Ecological Assembly Rules: Perspectives, Advances, Retreats (eds E. Weiher J.P. Keddy pp. 338 362. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
51. Dodds, W.K. (1997) Interspecific interactions: constructing a general neutral model for interaction type. Oikos, 78, 377 383.
52. Dormann, C.F. Brooker, R.W. (2002) Facilitation and competition in the high Arctic: the importance of the experimental approach. Acta Oecologica, 23, 297 301.
53. Fargione, J.E. Tilman, D. (2005) Diversity decreases invasion via both sampling and complementarity effects. Ecology Letters, 8, 604 611.
54. Flores, J. Jurado, E. (2003) Are nurse-protégé interactions more common among plants from arid environments? Journal of Vegetation Science, 14, 911 916.
55. Freckleton, R.P. Watkinson, A.R. (1997a) Measuring plant neighbour effects. Functional Ecology, 11, 532 534.
56. Freckleton, R.P. Watkinson, A.R. (1997b) Response to Markham. Functional Ecology, 11, 536.
57. Freckleton, R.P. Watkinson, A.R. (1999) The mis-measurement of plant competition. Functional Ecology, 13, 285 287.
58. Frérot, H., Lefèbvre, C., Gruber, W., Collin, C., Dos Santos, A. Escarré, J. (2006) Specific interactions between local metallicolous plants improve the phytostabilization of mine soils. Plant and Soil, 282, 53 65.
59. García-Moya, E. McKell, C. (1970) Contribution of shrubs to the nitrogen economy of a desert-wash plant community. Ecology, 51, 81 88.
60. Gaucherand, S., Liancourt, P. Lavorel, S. (2006) Importance and intensity of competition along a fertility gradient and across species. Journal of Vegetation Science, 17, 455 464.
61. Gibson, C.W.D. Brown, V.K. (1991) The effects of grazing on local colonisation and extinction during early succession. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2, 291 300.
62. Gibson, D.J., Connolly, J., Hartnett, D.C. Weidenhamer, J.D. (1999) Designs for greenhouse studies of interactions between plants. Journal of Ecology, 87, 1 16.
63. Goldberg, D.E., Rajaniemi, T., Gurevitch, J. Stewart-Oaten, A. (1999) Empirical approaches to quantifying interaction intensity: competition and facilitation along productivity gradients. Ecology, 80, 1118 1131.
64. Gómez-Aparicio, L., Zamora, R., Gómez, J.M., Hódar, J.A., Castro, J. Baraza, E. (2004) Applying plant positive interactions to reforestation in Mediterranean mountains: a meta-analysis of the use of shrubs as nurse plants. Ecological Applications, 14, 1128 1138.
65. Grace, J.B. (1991) A clarification of the debate between Grime and Tilman. Functional Ecology, 5, 583 587.
66. Grace, J.B. (1993) The effects of habitat productivity on competition intensity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 229 230.
67. Greenlee, J.T. Callaway, R.M. (1996) Abiotic stress and the relative importance of interference and facilitation in montane bunchgrass communities in western Montana. American Naturalist, 148, 386 396.
68. Grime, J.P. (1973) Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature, 242, 344 347.
69. Grime, J.P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategy. Nature, 250, 26 30.
70. Grime, J.P. (1977) Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. American Naturalist, 111, 1169 1194.
71. Grime, J.P. (1979) Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. Wiley, Chichester.
72. Grime, J.P. (1998) Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: immediate, filter and founder effects. Journal of Ecology, 86, 902 910.
73. Grime, J.P. (2007) Plant strategy theories: a comment on Craine (2005). Journal of Ecology, 95, 227 230.
74. Guisan, A. Theurillat, J.P. (2000) Assessing alpine vulnerability to climate change, a modelling perspective. Integrated Assessment, 1, 307 320.
75. Hacker, S.D. Bertness, M.D. (1999) Experimental evidence for factors maintaining species diversity in a New England salt marsh. Ecology, 80, 2064 2073.
76. Hacker, S.D. Gaines, S.D. (1997) Some implications of direct positive interactions for community species diversity. Ecology, 78, 1990 2003.
77. Halpern, B.S., Silliman, B.R., Olden, J.D., Bruno, J.P. Bertness, M.D. (2007) Incorporating positive interactions in aquatic restoration and conservation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 5, 153 160.
78. Hastings, A., Byers, J.E., Crooks, J.A., Cuddington, K., Jones, C.G., Lambrinos, J.G., Talley, T.S. Wilson, W.G. (2007) Ecosystem engineering in space and time. Ecology Letters, 10, 153 164.
79. Hauggaard-Nielsen, H. Jensen, E.S. (2005) Facilitative root interactions in intercrops. Plant and Soil, 274, 237 250.
80. Hay, M.E. (1986) Associational defenses and the maintenance of species diversity: turning competitors into accomplices. American Naturalist, 128, 617 641.
81. Hector, A., Schmid, B., Beierkuhnlein, C., Caldeira, M.C., Diemer, M., Dimitrakopoulos, P.G., et al 1999) Plant diversity and productivity experiments in European grasslands. Science, 286, 1123 1127.
82. Hobbs, R.J., Arico, S., Aronson, J., Baron, J.S., Bridgewater, P., Cramer, V.A., et al 2006) Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 15, 1 7.
83. Holmgren, M. (2000) Combined effects of shade and drought on tulip poplar seedlings: trade-off in tolerance of facilitation? Oikos, 90, 67 78.
84. Holmgren, M., Scheffer, M. Huston, M.A. (1997) The interplay of facilitation and competition in plant communities. Ecology, 78, 1966 1975.
85. Holzapfel, C. Mahall, B.E. (1999) Bidirectional facilitation and interference between shrubs and annuals in the Mojave Desert. Ecology, 80, 1747 1761.
86. Holzapfel, C., Tielbörger, K., Parag, H.A., Kigel, J. Sternberg, M. (2006) Annual plant-shrub interactions along an aridity gradient. Basic and Applied Ecology, 7, 268 279.
87. Hooper, D.U., Chapin, F.S., Ewel, J.J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., et al 2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 75, 3 35.
88. Huisman, J., Johansson, A.M., Folmer, E.O. Weissing, F.J. (2001) Towards a solution of the plankton paradox: the importance of physiology and life history. Ecology Letters, 4, 408 411.
89. Huisman, J. Weissing, F.J. (1999) Biodiversity of plankton by species oscillations and chaos. Nature, 402, 407 410.
90. Hunter, A.F. Aarssen, L.W. (1988) Plants helping plants. Bioscience, 38, 34 39.
91. Huston, M.A. (1979) A general hypothesis of species diversity. American Naturalist, 113, 81 101.
92. Jensen, E.S. (1996) Barley uptake of N deposited in the rhizosphere of associated field pea. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 28, 159 168.
93. Jones, C.G., Lawton, J.H. Shachak, M. (1997) Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology, 78, 1946 1957.
94. Kikvidze, Z., Armas, C. Pugnaire, F.I. (2006a) The effect of initial biomass in manipulative experiments on plants. Functional Ecology, 20, 1 3.
95. Kikvidze, Z., Khetsuriani, L., Kikodze, D. Callaway, R.M. (2006b) Seasonal shifts in competition and facilitation in subalpine plant communities of the central Caucasus. Journal of Vegetation Science, 17, 77 82.
96. Kikvidze, Z., Pugnaire, F.I., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Lortie, C.J., Michalet, R. Callaway, R.M. (2005) Linking patterns and processes in alpine plant communities: a global study. Ecology, 86, 1395 1400.
97. Kirwan, L., Lüscher, A., Sebastia, M.T., Finn, J.A., Collins, R.P., Porqueddu, C., et al 2007) Evenness drives consistent diversity effects in intensive grassland systems across 28 European sites. Journal of Ecology, 95, 530 539.
98. Klanderud, K. (2005) Climate change effects on species interactions in an alpine plant community. Journal of Ecology, 93, 127 137.
99. Klanderud, K. Totland, Ø. (2005) The relative importance of neighbours and abiotic environmental conditions for population dynamic parameters of two alpine plant species. Journal of Ecology, 93, 493 501.
100. Kunstler, G., Curt, T., Bouchaud, M. Lepart, J. (2006) Indirect facilitation and competition in tree species colonization of sub-mediterranean grasslands. Journal of Vegetation Science, 17, 379 388.
101. Laird, R.A. Schamp, B.S. (2006) Competitive intransitivity promotes species coexistence. American Naturalist, 168, 182 193.
102. Lenz, T.I. Facelli, J.M. (2003) Shade facilitates an invasive stem succulent in a chenopod shrubland in South Australia. Austral Ecology, 28, 480 490.
103. Levine, S.H. (1976) Competitive interactions in ecosystems. American Naturalist, 110, 903 910.
104. Levine, J. (1999) Indirect facilitation: evidence and predictions from a riparian community. Ecology, 80, 1762 1769.
105. Liancourt, P., Callaway, R.M. Michalet, R. (2005) Stress tolerance and competitive-response ability determine the outcome of biotic interactions. Ecology, 86, 1611 1618.
106. Lortie, C.J., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Kikvidze, Z., Michalet, R., Pugnaire, F.I. Callaway, R.M. (2004) Rethinking plant community theory. Oikos, 107, 433 438.
107. Lortie, C.J. Callaway, R.M. (2006) Re-analysis of meta-analysis: support for the stress-gradient hypothesis. Journal of Ecology, 94, 7 16.
108. Maestre, F.T., Bautista, S. Cortina, J. (2003a) Positive, negative, and net effects in grass-shrub interactions in Mediterranean semiarid grasslands. Ecology, 84, 3186 3197.
109. Maestre, F.T., Bautista, S., Cortina, J. Bellot, J. (2001) Potential for using facilitation by grasses to establish shrubs on a semiarid degraded steppe. Ecological Applications, 11, 1641 1655.
110. Maestre, F.T. Cortina, J. (2004) Do positive interactions increase with abiotic stress? A test from a semi-arid steppe. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Supplement, 271, S331 S333.
111. Maestre, F.T., Cortina, J. Bautista, S. (2004) Mechanisms underlying the interaction between Pinus halepensis and the native late-successional shrub Pistacia lentiscus in a semi-arid plantation. Ecography, 27, 776 786.
112. Maestre, F.T., Cortina, J., Bautista, S. Bellot, J. (2003b) Does Pinus halepensis facilitate the establishment of shrubs under semi-arid climate? Forest Ecology and Management, 176, 147 160.
113. 2 partial pressure modulate the effects of nutrient heterogeneity on the size structure of populations in grassland species. Annals of Botany, 98, 227 235.
114. 2, soil heterogeneity and diversity: an experimental assessment with grassland assemblages. Oecologia, 151, 512 520.
115. Maestre, F.T., Valladares, F. Reynolds, J.F. (2005) Is the change of plant-plant interactions with abiotic stress predictable? A meta-analysis of field results in arid environments. Journal of Ecology, 93, 748 757.
116. Maestre, F.T., Valladares, F. Reynolds, J.F. (2006) The stress-gradient hypothesis does not fit all relationships between plant-plant interactions and abiotic stress: further insights from arid environments. Journal of Ecology, 94, 17 22.
117. Markham, J.H. (1997) Measuring and modelling plant neighbour effects: a reply to Freckleton and Watkinson. Functional Ecology, 11, 534 535.
118. Markham, J.H. Chanway, C.P. (1996) Measuring plant neighbor effects. Functional Ecology, 10, 548 549.
119. Maron, J.L. Connors, P.G. (1996) A native nitrogen-fixing shrub facilitates weed invasion. Oecologia, 105, 302 312.
120. Menge, B.A. (1976) Organization of the New England rocky intertidal community: role of predation, competition and environmental heterogeneity. Ecological Monographs, 46, 355 369.
121. Michalet, R. (2006) Is facilitation in arid environments the result of direct or complex interactions? New Phytologist, 169, 3 6.
122. Michalet, R. (2007) Highlighting the multiple drivers of change in interactions along stress gradients. New Phytologist, 173, 3 6.
123. Michalet, R., Brooker, R.W., Cavieres, L.A., Kikvidze, Z., Lortie, C.J., Pugnaire, F.I., Valiente-Banuet, A. Callaway, R.M. (2006) Do biotic interactions shape both sides of the humped-back model of species richness in plant communities? Ecology Letters, 9, 767 773.
124. Miller, T.E. (1994) Direct and indirect species interactions in an early old-field plant community. American Naturalist, 143, 1007 1025.
125. Miriti, M.N. (2006) Ontogenetic shift from facilitation to competition in a desert shrub. Journal of Ecology, 94, 973 979.
126. Mitchell, C.E., Agrawal, A.A., Bever, J.D., Gilbert, G.S., Hufbauer, R.A., Klironomos, J.N., et al 2006) Biotic interactions and plant invasions. Ecology Letters, 9, 726 740.
127. Murrell, D.J. Law, R. (2003) Heteromyopia and the spatial coexistence of similar competitors. Ecology Letters, 6, 48 59.
128. Odum, E.P. (1968) Fundamentals of Ecology, 2nd edn. W.B. Saunders, London.
129. Ormerod, S.J., Marshall, E.J.P., Kerby, G. Rushton, S.P. (2003) Meeting the ecological challenges of agricultural change: editors' introduction. Journal of Applied Ecology, 40, 939 946.
130. Padilla, F.M. Pugnaire, F.I. (2006) The role of nurse plants in the restoration of degraded environments. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 4, 196 202.
131. Pagès, J.P. Michalet, R. (2003) A test of the indirect facilitation model in a temperate hardwood forest of the northern French Alps. Journal of Ecology, 91, 932 940.
132. Pagès, J.P., Pache, G., Joud, D., Magnan, N. Michalet, R. (2003) Direct and indirect effects of shade on four forest tree seedlings in the French Alps. Ecology, 84, 2741 2750.
133. Parrotta, J.A., Turnbull, J.W. Jones, N. (1997) Introduction - Catalyzing native forest regeneration on degraded tropical lands. Forest Ecology and Management, 99, 1 7.
134. Pate, J.S. Dawson, T.E. (1999) Assessing the performance of woody plants in uptake and utilisation of carbon, water and nutrients - Implications for designing agricultural mimic systems. Agroforestry Systems, 45, 245 275.
135. Pennings, S.C., Seling, E.R., Houser, L.T. Bertness, M.D. (2003) Geographic variation in positive and negative interactions among salt marsh plants. Ecology, 84, 1527 1538.
136. Pugnaire, F.I., Haase, P. Puigdefábregas, J. (1996) Facilitation between higher plant species in a semiarid environment. Ecology, 77, 1420 1426.
137. Pugnaire, F.I. Luque, M.T. (2001) Changes in plant interactions along a gradient of environmental stress. Oikos, 93, 42 49.
138. Reader, R.J., Wilson, S.D., Belcher, J.W., Wisheu, I., Keddy, P.A., Tilman, D., et al 1994) Plant competition in relation to neighbor biomass: an intercontinental study with Poa pratensis. Ecology, 75, 1753 1760.
139. Reinhart, K.O., Maestre, F.T. Callaway, R.M. (2006) Facilitation and inhibition of seedlings of an invasive tree (Acer platanoides) by different tree species in a mountain ecosystem. Biological Invasions, 8, 231 240.
140. Richardson, D.M., Allsop, N., D'Antonio, C.M., Milton, S.J. Rejmánek, M. (2000) Plant invasions-the role of mutualisms. Biological Reviews, 75, 65 93.
141. Ricketts, T.H., Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, P.R. Michener, C.D. (2004) Economic value of tropical forest to coffee production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101, 12579 12582.
142. Root, R.B. (1973) Organization of a plant-arthropod association in simple and diverse habitats: the fauna of collards (Brassica oleracea). Ecological Monographs, 43, 95 124.
143. Rousset, O. Lepart, J. (2000) Positive and negative interactions at different life stages of a colonizing species (Quercus humilis). Journal of Ecology, 88, 401 412.
144. Sala, O.E., Chapin, F.S. III, Armesto, J.J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., et al 2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287, 1770 1774.
145. Scheffer, M. van Nes, E.H. (2006) Self-organized similarity, the evolutionary emergence of groups of similar species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 6230 6235.
146. Schiffers, K. Tielbörger, K. (2006) Ontogenetic shifts in interactions among annual plants. Journal of Ecology, 94, 336 341.
147. Seifan, M. Kadmon, R. (2006) Indirect effects of cattle grazing on shrub spatial pattern in a mediterranean scrub community. Basic and Applied Ecology, 7, 496 506.
148. Sekiya, N. Yano, K. (2004) Do pigeon pea and sesbania supply groundwater to intercropped maize through hydraulic lift? Hydrogen stable isotope investigation of xylem waters. Field Crops Research, 86, 167 173.
149. Shevtsova, A., Haukioja, E. Ojala, A. (1997) Growth response of subarctic dwarf shrubs, Empetrum nigrum and Vaccinium vitis-idaea, to manipulated environmental conditions and species renoval. Oikos, 78, 440 458.
150. Siemann, E. Rogers, W.E. (2003) Changes in light and nitrogen avaibility under pioneer trees may indirectly facilitate tree invasions of grasslands. Journal of Ecology, 91, 923 931.
151. Simberloff, D. (2006) Invasional meltdown 6 years later: important phenomenon, unfortunate metaphor, or both Ecology Letters, 9, 912 919.
152. Simberloff, D., Relva, M.A. Nuñez, M. (2003) Introduced species and management of a Nothofagus/Austrocedrus forest. Environmental Management, 31, 263 275.
153. Simberloff, D. Von Holle, B. (1999) Positive interactions of nonindigenous species: invasional meltdown? Biological Invasions, 1, 21 32.
154. Stoll, P. Weiner, J. (2000) A neighborhood view of interactions among individual plants. The Geometry of Ecological Interactions: Simplifying Spatial Complexity (eds U. Dieckmann, R. Law J.A.J. Metz pp. 11 27. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
155. Suding, K.N., Gross, K.L. Houseman, G.R. (2004) Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 46 53.
156. Sutherland, W.J., Pullin, A.S., Dolman, P.M. Knight, T.M. (2004) The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 305 308.
157. Thomson, J.D. (1978) Effects of stand composition on insect visitation in two-species mixtures of Hieracium. American Midland Naturalist, 100, 431 440.
158. Tielbörger, K. Kadmon, R. (1995) Effect of shrubs on emergence, survival and fecundity of four coexisting annual species in a sandy desert ecosystem. Ecoscience, 2, 141 147.
159. Tielbörger, K. Kadmon, R. (2000a) Temporal environmental variation tips the balance between facilitation and interference in desert plants. Ecology, 81, 1544 1553.
160. Tielbörger, K. Kadmon, R. (2000b) Indirect effects in a desert plant community: is competition among annuals more intense under shrub canopies? Plant Ecology, 150, 53 63.
161. Tilman, D. (1988) Plant Strategies and the Dynamics and Structure of Plant Communities. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
162. Tirado, R. Pugnaire, F.I. (2003) Shrub spatial aggregation and consequences for reproductive success. Oecologia, 136, 296 301.
163. Travis, J.M.J. (2003) Climate change and habitat destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 270, 467 473.
164. Travis, J.M.J., Brooker, R.W., Clark, E.J. Dytham, C. (2006) The distribution of positive and negative species interactions across environmental gradients on a dual-lattice model. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 241, 896 902.
165. Travis, J.M.J., Brooker, R.W. Dytham, C. (2005) The interplay of positive and negative interactions across an environmental gradient: insights from an individual-based simulation model. Biology Letters, 1, 5 8.
166. Travis, J.M.J. Dytham, C. (1999) Habitat persistence, habitat availability and the evolution of dispersal. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, 266, 723 728.
167. Valiente-Banuet, A., Rumebe, A.V., Verdú, M. Callaway, R.M. (2006) Quaternary Plant lineages sustain global diversity by facilitating Tertiary lineages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 16812 16817.
168. Vilà. M., Williamson, M. Lonsdale, M. (2004) Competition experiments on alien weeds with crops: lessons for measuring plant invasion impact? Biological Invasions, 6, 59 69.
169. Walker, L.R. del Moral, R. (2003) Primary Succession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
170. Walker, L.R. Powell, E.A. (1999) Regeneration of the Mauna Kea silversword Argyroxiphium sandwicense (Asteraceae) in Hawaii. Biological Conservation, 89, 61 70.
171. Walker, L.R., Walker, J. Hobbs, R.J. (2007) Linking Restoration and Ecological Succession. Springer, New York.
172. Weigelt, A. Jolliffe, P. (2003) Indices of plant competition. Journal of Ecology, 91, 707 720.
173. Weigelt, A., Schumacher, J., Walther, T., Bartelheimer, M., Steinlein, T. Beyschlag, W. (2007) Identifying mechanisms of competition in multi-species communities. Journal of Ecology, 95, 53 64.
174. Welden, C.W. Slauson, W.L. (1986) The intensity of competition versus its importance: an overlooked distinction and some implications. Quarterly Review of Biology, 61, 23 44.
175. Went, F.W. (1942) The dependence of certain annual plants on shrubs in southern California deserts. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 69, 100 114.
176. Wilson, M.V. (2007) Measuring the components of competition along productivity gradients. Journal of Ecology, 95, 301 308.
177. Wipf, S., Rixen, C. Mulder, C.P.H. (2006) Advanced snowmelt causes shift toward positive neighbour interactions in a subarctic tundra community. Global Change Biology, 12, 1 11.
178. Wooton, J.T. (1994) The nature and consequences of indirect effects in ecological communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 25, 443 466.
179. Yamamura, N., Higashi, M., Behera, N. Wakano, J.Y. (2004) Evolution of mutualism through spatial effects. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 226, 421 428.
180. Young, T.P., Petersen, D.A. Clary, J.J. (2005) The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms. Ecology Letters, 8, 662 673.
181. Zavaleta, E.S. Hulvey, K.B. (2004) Realistic species losses disproportionately reduce grassland resistance to biological invaders. Science, 306, 1175 1177.