Understanding nutritional epidemiology and its role in policy

Advances in Nutrition

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 5-18

  Satija, Ambika ^a   Yu, Edward ^a   Willett, Walter C ^a,b   Hu, Frank B ^a,b  

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Dietary assessment; Food policy; Meta analysis; Nutritional epidemiology; Prospective cohort studies; Randomized controlled trials

Indexed keywords

DIET; EPIDEMIOLOGY; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; HEALTH; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PROCEDURES;

DIET; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; FOOD HABITS; HEALTH; HUMANS; NUTRITION POLICY; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCES; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; RESEARCH DESIGN;

EID: 84941365231     PISSN: 21618313     EISSN: 21565376     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3945/an.114.007492     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Taubes G. Epidemiology faces its limits. Science 1995;269:164-9.
2. Ioannidis JP. Implausible results in human nutrition research. BMJ 2013;347:f6698.
3. Archer E, Hand GA, Blair SN. Validity of U.S. nutritional surveillance: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey caloric energy intake data, 1971-2010. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e76632.
4. Flegal KM, Kit BK, Orpana H, Graubard BI. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2013;309:71-82.
5. Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, Crowe F, Ward HA, Johnson L, Franco OH, Butterworth AS, Forouhi NG, Thompson SG, et al. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2014;160:398-406.
6. Bittman M. Butter is back. The New York Times 2014 March 25.
7. Willett W. Nutritional epidemiology. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2013.
8. Moshfegh AJ, Rhodes DG, Baer DJ, Murayi T, Clemens JC, Rumpler WV, Paul DR, Sebastian RS, Kuczynski KJ, Ingwersen LA, et al. The U.S. Department of Agriculture Automated Multiple-Pass Method reduces bias in the collection of energy intakes. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:324-32.
9. Bingham SACA, Cole TJ, Welch A, Runswick SA, Black AE, Thurnham D, Bates C, Khaw KT, Key TJ, Day NE. Methods for data collection at an individual level. In: Cameron M, Staverene WV, editors. Manual on methodology for food consumption studies. New York: Oxford University Press; 1988. p. 53-106.
10. Pekkarinen M. Methodology in the collection of food consumption data. World Rev Nutr Diet 1970;12:145-71.
11. Hebert JR, Hurley TG, Chiriboga DE, Barone J. A comparison of selected nutrient intakes derived from three diet assessment methods used in a low-fat maintenance trial. Public Health Nutr 1998;1:207-14.
12. De Keyzer W, Huybrechts I, De Vriendt V, Vandevijvere S, Slimani N, Van Oyen H, De Henauw S. Repeated 24-hour recalls versus dietary records for estimating nutrient intakes in a national food consumption survey. Food Nutr Res 2011;55:doi: 10.3402/fnr.v55i0.7307.
13. Hébert JR, Hurley TG, Steck SE, Miller DR, Tabung FK, Peterson KE, Kushi LH, Frongillo EA. Considering the value of dietary assessment data in informing nutrition-related health policy. Adv Nutr 2014;5:447-55.
14. Guolo A. Robust techniques for measurement error correction: a review. Stat Methods Med Res 2008;17:555-80.
15. Hebert JR, Clemow L, Pbert L, Ockene IS, Ockene JK. Social desirability bias in dietary self-report may compromise the validity of dietary intake measures. Int J Epidemiol 1995;24:389-98.
16. Hebert JR, Ma Y, Clemow L, Ockene IS, Saperia G, Stanek EJ 3rd, Merriam PA, Ockene JK. Gender differences in social desirability and social approval bias in dietary self-report. Am J Epidemiol 1997;146:1046-55.
17. Hebert JR, Ebbeling CB, Matthews CE, Hurley TG, Ma Y, Druker S, Clemow L. Systematic errors in middle-aged women's estimates of energy intake: comparing three self-report measures to total energy expenditure from doubly labeled water. Ann Epidemiol 2002;12:577-86.
18. Preis SR, Spiegelman D, Zhao BB, Moshfegh A, Baer DJ, Willett WC. Application of a repeat-measure biomarker measurement error model to 2 validation studies: examination of the effect of within-person variation in biomarker measurements. Am J Epidemiol 2011;173:683-94.
19. Rosner B, Spiegelman D, Willett WC. Correction of logistic regression relative risk estimates and confidence intervals for measurement error: the case of multiple covariates measured with error. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:734-45.
20. Spiegelman D, Zhao B, Kim J. Correlated errors in biased surrogates: study designs and methods for measurement error correction. Stat Med 2005;24:1657-82.
21. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Underwood BA, Speizer FE, Rosner B, Hennekens CH. Validation of a dietary questionnaire with plasma carotenoid and alpha-tocopherol levels. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:631-9.
22. Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Litin L, Willett WC. Correlations of vitamin A and E intakes with the plasma concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols among American men and women. J Nutr 1992;122:1792-801.
23. Conway JM, Ingwersen LA, Moshfegh AJ. Accuracy of dietary recall using the USDA five-step multiple-pass method in men: an observational validation study. J Am Diet Assoc 2004;104:595-603.
24. Ferrari P, Friedenreich C, Matthews CE. The role of measurement error in estimating levels of physical activity. Am J Epidemiol 2007;166:832-40.
25. Adams SA, Matthews CE, Ebbeling CB, Moore CG, Cunningham JE, Fulton J, Hebert JR. The effect of social desirability and social approval on self-reports of physical activity. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:389-98.
26. Archer E, Hand GA, Hebert JR, Lau EY, Wang X, Shook RP, Fayad R, Lavie CJ, Blair SN. Validation of a novel protocol for calculating estimated energy requirements and average daily physical activity ratio for the US population: 2005-2006. Mayo Clin Proc 2013;88:1398-407.
27. Archer E, Shook RP, Thomas DM, Church TS, Katzmarzyk PT, Hebert JR, McIver KL, Hand GA, Lavie CJ, Blair SN. 45-Year trends in women's use of time and household management energy expenditure. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e56620.
28. Wang DD, Leung CW, Li Y, Ding EL, Chiuve SE, Hu FB, Willett WC. Trends in dietary quality among adults in the United States, 1999 through 2010. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:1587-95.
29. Cade J, Thompson R, Burley V, Warm D. Development, validation and utilisation of food-frequency questionnaires-a review. Public Health Nutr 2002;5:567-87.
30. Subar AF, Thompson FE, Kipnis V, Midthune D, Hurwitz P, McNutt S, McIntosh A, Rosenfeld S. Comparative validation of the Block, Willett, and National Cancer Institute food frequency questionnaires: the Eating at America's Table Study. Am J Epidemiol 2001;154:1089-99.
31. Kaaks RJ. Biochemical markers as additional measurements in studies of the accuracy of dietary questionnaire measurements: conceptual issues. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(Suppl 4):1232S-9S.
32. Giovannucci E, Goldin B. The role of fat, fatty acids, and total energy intake in the etiology of human colon cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66(Suppl 6):1564S-71S.
33. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Rosner BA, Longnecker M, Speizer FE, Willett WC. A comparison of prospective and retrospective assessments of diet in the study of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1993;137:502-11.
34. Hernán MA, Robins JM. Estimating causal effects from epidemiological data. J Epidemiol Community Health 2006;60:578-86.
35. Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 1965;58:295-300.
36. Malik VS, Hu FB. Sweeteners and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes: the role of sugar-sweetened beverages. Curr Diab Rep 2012;12:195-203.
37. Jacobs DR, Jr., Gallaher DD. Whole grain intake and cardiovascular disease: a review. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2004;6:415-23.
38. Mozaffarian D, Aro A, Willett WC. Health effects of trans-fatty acids: experimental and observational evidence. Eur J Clin Nutr 2009;63(Suppl 2):S5-21.
39. Jacobs DR, Jr., Gross MD, Tapsell LC. Food synergy: an operational concept for understanding nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:1543S-8S.
40. Jacobs DR, Jr. What comes first: the food or the nutrient? Executive summary of a symposium. J Nutr 2014;144(Suppl 4):543S-6S.
41. Sofi F, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A. Accruing evidence on benefits of adherence to the Mediterranean diet on health: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:1189-96.
42. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ. Nut consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: a review of epidemiologic evidence. Curr Atheroscler Rep 1999;1:204-9.
43. Katan MB, Zock PL, Mensink RP. Dietary oils, serum lipoproteins, and coronary heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61(Suppl 6):1368S-73S.
44. Dauchet L, Amouyel P, Hercberg S, Dallongeville J. Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Nutr 2006;136:2588-93.
45. Hu FB, Manson JE, Willett WC. Types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a critical review. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:5-19.
46. Quiñones M, Miguel M, Aleixandre A. Beneficial effects of polyphenols on cardiovascular disease. Pharmacol Res 2013;68:125-31.
47. Bredsdorff L, Obel T, Dethlefsen C, Tjonneland A, Schmidt EB, Rasmussen SE, Overvad K. Urinary flavonoid excretion and risk of acute coronary syndrome in a nested case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2013;98:209-16.
48. Joensen AM, Overvad K, Dethlefsen C, Johnsen SP, Tjonneland A, Rasmussen LH, Schmidt EB. Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in adipose tissue and the risk of acute coronary syndrome. Circulation 2011;124:1232-8.
49. Mozaffarian D, Clarke R. Quantitative effects on cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease risk of replacing partially hydrogenated vegetable oils with other fats and oils. Eur J Clin Nutr 2009;63(Suppl 2):S22-33.
50. Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA 2005;293:43-53.
51. Stern L, Iqbal N, Seshadri P, Chicano KL, Daily DA, McGrory J, Williams M, Gracely EJ, Samaha FF. The effects of low-carbohydrate versus conventional weight loss diets in severely obese adults: one-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2004;140:778-85.
52. Rubin DB. Inference and missing data. Biometrika 1976;63:581-92.
53. Willett WC. The WHI joins MRFIT: a revealing look beneath the covers. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91:829-30.
54. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ. Dietary fat and cancer: another view. Cancer Causes Control 1990;1:103-9.
55. Hu FB, Willett WC. Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2002;288:2569-78.
56. Blumberg J, Heaney RP, Huncharek M, Scholl T, Stampfer M, Vieth R, Weaver CM, Zeisel SH. Evidence-based criteria in the nutritional context. Nutr Rev 2010;68:478-84.
57. Steinhubl SR. Why have antioxidants failed in clinical trials? Am J Cardiol 2008;101:14D-9D.
58. Wiseman MJ, Jackson AA. Interpreting nutrition research - more complex than apparent plausibility. Electronic response to Ioannidis JP, Implausible results in human nutrition research. BMJ 2013;347: f6698.
59. Anglemyer A, Horvath HT, Bero L. Healthcare outcomes assessed with observational study designs compared with those assessed in randomized trials. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:MR000034.
60. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvado J, Covas MI, Corella D, Aros F, Gomez-Gracia E, Ruiz-Gutierrez V, Fiol M, Lapetra J, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med 2013;368:1279-90.
61. Fardet A, Rock E. Toward a new philosophy of preventive nutrition: from a reductionist to a holistic paradigm to improve nutritional recommendations. Adv Nutr 2014;5:430-46.
62. Rose G, Hamilton PJ. A randomised controlled trial of the effect on middle-aged men of advice to stop smoking. J Epidemiol Community Health 1978;32:275-81.
63. Greenhalgh T. Getting your bearings: what is this paper about? How to read a paper: the basics of evidence-based medicine. London: BMJ Books; 2014. p. 41.
64. Guyatt GH, Sackett DL, Sinclair JC, Hayward R, Cook DJ, Cook RJ. Users' guides to the medical literature. IX. A method for grading health care recommendations. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA 1995;274:1800-4.
65. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315:629-34.
66. Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics 2000;56:455-63.
67. Cooper HM, Hedges LV, Valentine JC editors. The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis. 2nd ed. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 2009.
68. Andres R, Muller DC, Sorkin JD. Long-term effects of change in body weight on all-cause mortality. A review. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:737-43.
69. Lee IM, Paffenbarger RS, Jr. Is weight loss hazardous? Nutr Rev 1996;54:S116-24.
70. Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, Moore SC, Tobias GS, Anton-Culver H, Freeman LB, et al. Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2211-9.
71. Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, Clarke R, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Collins R, Peto R. Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900,000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet 2009;373:1083-96.
72. Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Body weight and longevity. A reassessment. JAMA 1987;257:353-8.
73. Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE. Body weight and mortality among women. N Engl J Med 1995;333:677-85.
74. Austin GL, Ogden LG, Hill JO. Trends in carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes and association with energy intake in normal-weight, overweight, and obese individuals: 1971-2006. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;93:836-43.
75. Vergnaud AC, Norat T, Mouw T, Romaguera D, May AM, Buenode-Mesquita HB, van der AD, Agudo A, Wareham N, Khaw KT, et al. Macronutrient composition of the diet and prospective weight change in participants of the EPIC-PANACEA study. PLoS ONE 2013;8: e57300.
76. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm E, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1491-9.
77. Hu FB. Are refined carbohydrates worse than saturated fat? Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91:1541-2.
78. Introduction. Diabetes Care 2008;31(Suppl 1):S1-2.
79. Silber S. A new and rapid scoring system to assess the scientific evidence from clinical trials. J Interv Cardiol 2006;19:485-92.
80. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force [Internet]. Grade definitions [cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://www.uspreventiveservices-taskforce. org/uspstf/grades.htm#post.
81. U.S. FDA [Internet]. Guidance for industry: evidence-based review system for the scientific evaluation of health claims-final [updated 2014 Jul 9; cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://www.fda. gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/ucm073332.htm#system.
82. Spahn JM, Lyon JM, Altman JM, Blum-Kemelor DM, Essery EV, Fungwe TV, Macneil PC, McGrane MM, Obbagy JE, Wong YP. The systematic review methodology used to support the 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. J Am Diet Assoc 2011;111:520-3.
83. Smithells RW, Sheppard S, Schorah CJ, Seller MJ, Nevin NC, Harris R, Read AP, Fielding DW. Possible prevention of neural-tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. Lancet 1980;1:339-40.
84. Bower C, Stanley FJ. Dietary folate as a risk factor for neural-tube defects: evidence from a case-control study in Western Australia. Med J Aust 1989;150:613-9.
85. Mulinare J, Cordero JF, Erickson JD, Berry RJ. Periconceptional use of multivitamins and the occurrence of neural tube defects. JAMA 1988;260:3141-5.
86. Shaw GM, Schaffer D, Velie EM, Morland K, Harris JA. Periconceptional vitamin use, dietary folate, and the occurrence of neural tube defects. Epidemiology 1995;6:219-26.
87. Werler MM, Shapiro S, Mitchell AA. Periconceptional folic acid exposure and risk of occurrent neural tube defects. JAMA 1993;269:1257-61.
88. Milunsky A, Jick H, Jick SS, Bruell CL, MacLaughlin DS, Rothman KJ, WillettW. Multivitamin/folic acid supplementation in early pregnancy reduces the prevalence of neural tube defects. JAMA 1989;262:2847-52.
89. Wald NJ, Hackshaw AD, Stone R, Sourial NA. Blood folic acid and vitamin B12 in relation to neural tube defects. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:319-24.
90. MRC Vitamin Study Research Group. Prevention of neural tube defects: results of the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study. Lancet 1991;338:131-7.
91. Czeizel AE, Dudas I. Prevention of the first occurrence of neural-tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1832-5.
92. Beresford SA. How do we get enough folic acid to prevent some neural tube defects? Am J Public Health 1994;84:348-50.
93. Rayburn WF, Stanley JR, Garrett ME. Periconceptional folate intake and neural tube defects. J Am Coll Nutr 1996;15:121-5.
94. Wald NJ. Folic acid and neural tube defects: the current evidence and implications for prevention. Ciba Found Symp 1994;181:192-208.
95. Willett WC. Folic acid and neural tube defect: can't we come to closure? Am J Public Health 1992;82:666-8.
96. Honein MA, Paulozzi LJ, Mathews TJ, Erickson JD, Wong LY. Impact of folic acid fortification of the US food supply on the occurrence of neural tube defects. JAMA 2001;285:2981-6.
97. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:274-88.
98. Vartanian LR, Schwartz MB, Brownell KD. Effects of soft drink consumption on nutrition and health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 2007;97:667-75.
99. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Despres JP, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2010;33:2477-83.
100. Huang C, Huang J, Tian Y, Yang X, Gu D. Sugar sweetened beverages consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Atherosclerosis 2014;234:11-6.
101. Ebbeling CB, Feldman HA, Chomitz VR, Antonelli TA, Gortmaker SL, Osganian SK, Ludwig DS. A randomized trial of sugar-sweetened beverages and adolescent body weight. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1407-16.
102. de Ruyter JC, Olthof MR, Seidell JC, Katan MB. A trial of sugar-free or sugar-sweetened beverages and body weight in children. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1397-406.
103. Brownell KD, Farley T, Willett WC, Popkin BM, Chaloupka FJ, Thompson JW, Ludwig DS. The public health and economic benefits of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1599-605.
104. Brownell KD, Frieden TR. Ounces of prevention-the public policy case for taxes on sugared beverages. N Engl J Med 2009;360:1805-8.
105. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Food Research Program [Internet]. Evaluation of 2014 SSB&non-essential foods taxes in Mexico [cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://uncfoodresearch-program. web.unc.edu/projects/mexico-tax-eval/.
106. Guthrie A. Mexico soda tax dents Coke bottler's sales. The Wall Street Journal 2014 Feb 26.
107. Bloomberg [Internet]. New York soda size limit statute barred by state judge [updated 2013 Mar 11; cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-11/new-york-city-soda-size-limitations-barred-by-state-court-judge.html.
108. CDC. Competitive foods and beverages in U.S. schools: a state policy analysis. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services;2012.
109. CityofBoston.gov [Internet press release]. Mayor Menino issues order to end sugary drink sales on city property [updated 2011 Apr 7; cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://www.cityofboston.gov/news/default.aspx?id=5051.
110. Anderson JT, Grande F, Keys A. Essential fatty acids, degree of unsaturation, and effect of corn (maize) oil on the serum-cholesterol level in man. Lancet 1957;272:66-8.
111. Keys A, Anderson JT, Grande F. Prediction of serum-cholesterol responses of man to changes in fats in the diet. Lancet 1957;273:959-66.
112. Mensink RP, Katan MB. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects. N Engl J Med 1990;323:439-45.
113. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Rosner BA, Sampson LA, Hennekens CH. Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women. Lancet 1993;341:581-5.
114. Willett WC, Ascherio A. Trans fatty acids: are the effects only marginal? Am J Public Health 1994;84:722-4.
115. U.S. FDA [Internet]. Trans fat now listed with saturated fat and cholesterol [updated 2013 Dec 17; cited 2014 Aug 30]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/labelingnutrition/ucm274590.htm.
116. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1601-13.
117. Mello MM. New York City's war on fat. N Engl J Med 2009;360:2015-20.
118. Dietz WH, Scanlon KS. Eliminating the use of partially hydrogenated oil in food production and preparation. JAMA 2012;308:143-4.
119. Carroll MD,Kit BK, LacherDA, Shero ST, MussolinoME. Trends in lipids and lipoproteins in US adults, 1988-2010. JAMA 2012;308:1545-54.
120. Restrepo B, Rieger M. Trans fat and cardiovascular disease mortality: evidence from bans in restaurants in New York. Italy: European University Institute, Max Weber Programme; 2014.
121. Federal Register [Internet].Washington (DC): National Archives and Records Administration; 2013 [2014 Aug 19]. Available from: https://www. federalregister.gov/articles/2013/11/08/2013-26854/tentative-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-request-for-comments-and-for.
122. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, Kris-Etherton P, Rudel LL, Appel LJ, Engler MM, Engler MB, Sacks F. Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 2009;119:902-7.
123. International Agency for Research on Cancer [Internet]. EPIC Study [cited 2014 Aug 29]. Available from: http://epic.iarc.fr/.
124. UK Biobank [Internet] [cited 2014 Aug 29]. Available from: http://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/.
125. Sallis JF, Owen N, Fisher EB. Ecological models of health behavior. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Viswanath K, editors. Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008. p. 465-86.
126. Brug J, Oenema A, Ferreira I. Theory, evidence and intervention mapping to improve behavior nutrition and physical activity interventions. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2005;2:2.
127. Ben-Shlomo Y, Kuh D. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives. Int J Epidemiol 2002;31:285-93.
128. Hu FB. Metabolic profiling of diabetes: from black-box epidemiology to systems epidemiology. Clin Chem 2011;57:1224-6.
129. Cornelis MC, Hu FB. Systems epidemiology: a new direction in nutrition and metabolic disease research. Curr Nutr Rep 2013;2:225-35.
130. Franks PW, Pearson E, Florez JC. Gene-environment and gene-treatment interactions in type 2 diabetes: progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Diabetes Care 2013;36:1413-21.