A conceptual framework: The early and late phases of skeletal muscle dysfunction in the acute respiratory distress syndrome

Critical Care

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2015, Pages

  Files, D Clark ^a   Sanchez, Michael A ^a   Morris, Peter E ^a  

^a WAKE FOREST SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALPAIN; CASPASE; CISATRACURIUM; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 4; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INSULIN; MUSCLE RING FINGER 1 PROTEIN; MYOSIN; MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN; PROTEASOME; UBIQUITIN;

ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; AUTOPHAGY; CACHEXIA; CALORIC INTAKE; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; INTENSIVE CARE; MOBILIZATION; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE DISEASE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NEUROMUSCULAR ELECTRICAL STIMULATION; NONHUMAN; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITION; REVIEW; SARCOPENIA; SKELETAL MUSCLE; ANIMAL; DISEASE COURSE; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT; TRENDS;

ANIMALS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; HUMANS; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT;

EID: 84934753013     PISSN: 13648535     EISSN: 1466609X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/s13054-015-0979-5     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Matthay MA, Ware LB, Zimmerman GA. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2012;122:2731-40.
2. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, Weaver J, Martin DP, Neff M, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1685-93.
3. Brinkman S, Bakhshi-Raiez F, Abu-Hanna A, de Jonge E, de Keizer NF. Determinants of mortality after hospital discharge in ICU patients: literature review and Dutch cohort study. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:1237-51.
4. Lone NI, Walsh TS. Impact of intensive care unit organ failures on mortality during the five years after a critical illness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;186:640-7.
5. Ferrante LE, Pisani MA, Murphy TE, Gahbauer EA, Leo-Summers LS, Gill TM. Functional trajectories among older persons before and after critical illness. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:523-9.
6. Needham DM, Dinglas VD, Morris PE, Jackson JC, Hough CL, Mendez-Tellez PA, et al. Physical and cognitive performance of patients with acute lung injury 1 year after initial trophic versus full enteral feeding. EDEN trial follow-up. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188:567-76.
7. Mikkelsen ME, Christie JD, Lanken PN, Biester RC, Thompson BT, Bellamy SL, et al. The adult respiratory distress syndrome cognitive outcomes study: long-term neuropsychological function in survivors of acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:1307-15.
8. Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matte A, Tomlinson G, Diaz-Granados N, Cooper A, et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1293-304.
9. Hopkins RO, Weaver LK, Collingridge D, Parkinson RB, Chan KJ, Orme Jr JF. Two-year cognitive, emotional, and quality-of-life outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:340-7.
10. Fan E, Cheek F, Chlan L, Gosselink R, Hart N, Herridge MS, et al. An official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice guideline: the diagnosis of intensive care unit-acquired weakness in adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190:1437-46.
11. Stevens RD, Marshall SA, Cornblath DR, Hoke A, Needham DM, de Jonghe B, et al. A framework for diagnosing and classifying intensive care unit-acquired weakness. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:S299-308.
12. Ali NA, O'Brien Jr JM, Hoffmann SP, Phillips G, Garland A, Finley JC, et al. Acquired weakness, handgrip strength, and mortality in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178:261-8.
13. Hermans G, Van Mechelen H, Clerckx B, Vanhullebusch T, Mesotten D, Wilmer A, et al. Acute outcomes and 1-year mortality of intensive care unit-acquired weakness. A cohort study and propensity-matched analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190:410-20.
14. Sharshar T, Bastuji-Garin S, Stevens RD, Durand MC, Malissin I, Rodriguez P, et al. Presence and severity of intensive care unit-acquired paresis at time of awakening are associated with increased intensive care unit and hospital mortality. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:3047-53.
15. De Jonghe B, Sharshar T, Lefaucheur JP, Authier FJ, Durand-Zaleski I, Boussarsar M, et al. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA. 2002;288:2859-67.
16. Files DC, D'Alessio FR, Johnston LF, Kesari P, Aggarwal NR, Garibaldi BT, et al. A critical role for muscle ring finger-1 in acute lung injury-associated skeletal muscle wasting. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:825-34.
17. MacFarlane IA, Rosenthal FD. Severe myopathy after status asthmaticus. Lancet. 1977;2:615.
18. Bohannon RW. Manual muscle testing: does it meet the standards of an adequate screening test? Clin Rehabil. 2005;19:662-7.
19. Connolly BA, Jones GD, Curtis AA, Murphy PB, Douiri A, Hopkinson NS, et al. Clinical predictive value of manual muscle strength testing during critical illness: an observational cohort study. Crit Care. 2013;17:R229.
20. Needham DM, Wozniak AW, Hough CL, Morris PE, Dinglas VD, Jackson JC, et al. Risk factors for physical impairment after acute lung injury in a national, multicenter study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189:1214-24.
21. Guralnik JM, Simonsick EM, Ferrucci L, Glynn RJ, Berkman LF, Blazer DG, et al. A short physical performance battery assessing lower extremity function: association with self-reported disability and prediction of mortality and nursing home admission. J Gerontol. 1994;49:M85-94.
22. Studenski S, Perera S, Patel K, Rosano C, Faulkner K, Inzitari M, et al. Gait speed and survival in older adults. JAMA. 2011;305:50-8.
23. Weber-Carstens S, Deja M, Koch S, Spranger J, Bubser F, Wernecke KD, et al. Risk factors in critical illness myopathy during the early course of critical illness: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2010;14:R119.
24. Connolly B, MacBean V, Crowley C, Lunt A, Moxham J, Rafferty GF, et al. Ultrasound for the assessment of peripheral skeletal muscle architecture in critical illness: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2015;43:897-905.
25. Grimm A, Teschner U, Porzelius C, Ludewig K, Zielske J, Witte OW, et al. Muscle ultrasound for early assessment of critical illness neuromyopathy in severe sepsis. Crit Care. 2013;17:R227.
26. Wieske L, Witteveen E, Petzold A, Verhamme C, Schultz MJ, van Schaik IN, et al. Neurofilaments as a plasma biomarker for ICU-acquired weakness: an observational pilot study. Crit Care. 2014;18:R18.
27. Bloch SA, Lee JY, Wort SJ, Polkey MI, Kemp PR, Griffiths MJ. Sustained elevation of circulating growth and differentiation factor-15 and a dynamic imbalance in mediators of muscle homeostasis are associated with the development of acute muscle wasting following cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:982-9.
28. Supinski GS, Callahan LA. Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2013;17:R120.
29. Demoule A, Jung B, Prodanovic H, Molinari N, Chanques G, Coirault C, et al. Diaphragm dysfunction on admission to the intensive care unit. Prevalence, risk factors, and prognostic impact-a prospective study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188:213-9.
30. Semmler A, Okulla T, Kaiser M, Seifert B, Heneka MT. Long-term neuromuscular sequelae of critical illness. J Neurol. 2013;260:151-7.
31. Fletcher SN, Kennedy DD, Ghosh IR, Misra VP, Kiff K, Coakley JH, et al. Persistent neuromuscular and neurophysiologic abnormalities in long-term survivors of prolonged critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1012-6.
32. Hart DW, Wolf SE, Mlcak R, Chinkes DL, Ramzy PI, Obeng MK, et al. Persistence of muscle catabolism after severe burn. Surgery. 2000;128:312-9.
33. Hotchkiss RS, Monneret G, Payen D. Immunosuppression in sepsis: a novel understanding of the disorder and a new therapeutic approach. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:260-8.
34. Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, Hopkins RO, Weinert C, Wunsch H, et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: report from a stakeholders' conference. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:502-9.
35. Gutmann L, Blumenthal D, Gutmann L, Schochet SS. Acute type II myofiber atrophy in critical illness. Neurology. 1996;46:819-21.
36. Segredo V, Caldwell JE, Matthay MA, Sharma ML, Gruenke LD, Miller RD. Persistent paralysis in critically ill patients after long-term administration of vecuronium. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:524-8.
37. Puthucheary Z, Rawal J, Ratnayake G, Harridge S, Montgomery H, Hart N. Neuromuscular blockade and skeletal muscle weakness in critically ill patients: time to rethink the evidence? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:911-7.
38. Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A, Penot-Ragon C, Perrin G, Loundou A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:1107-16.
39. Derde S, Hermans G, Derese I, Guiza F, Hedstrom Y, Wouters PJ, et al. Muscle atrophy and preferential loss of myosin in prolonged critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:79-89.
40. Baehr LM, Furlow JD, Bodine SC. Muscle sparing in muscle RING finger 1 null mice: response to synthetic glucocorticoids. J Physiol. 2011;589:4759-76.
41. Hermans G, Casaer MP, Clerckx B, Guiza F, Vanhullebusch T, Derde S, et al. Effect of tolerating macronutrient deficit on the development of intensive-care unit acquired weakness: a subanalysis of the EPaNIC trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1:621-9.
42. Needham DM, Dinglas VD, Bienvenu OJ, Colantuoni E, Wozniak AW, Rice TW, et al. One year outcomes in patients with acute lung injury randomised to initial trophic or full enteral feeding: prospective follow-up of EDEN randomised trial. BMJ. 2013;346:f1532.
43. Bonaldo P, Sandri M. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of muscle atrophy. Dis Model Mech. 2013;6:25-39.
44. Phillips SM, McGlory C. CrossTalk proposal: the dominant mechanism causing disuse muscle atrophy is decreased protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2014;592:5341-3.
45. Puthucheary ZA, Rawal J, McPhail M, Connolly B, Ratnayake G, Chan P, et al. Acute skeletal muscle wasting in critical illness. JAMA. 2013;310:1591-600.
46. Wing SS, Lecker SH, Jagoe RT. Proteolysis in illness-associated skeletal muscle atrophy: from pathways to networks. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2011;48:49-70.
47. Janz DR, Ware LB. Biomarkers of ALI/ARDS: pathogenesis, discovery, and relevance to clinical trials. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;34:537-48.
48. Adams V, Mangner N, Gasch A, Krohne C, Gielen S, Hirner S, et al. Induction of MuRF1 is essential for TNF-alpha-induced loss of muscle function in mice. J Mol Biol. 2008;384:48-59.
49. Munoz-Canoves P, Scheele C, Pedersen BK, Serrano AL. Interleukin-6 myokine signaling in skeletal muscle: a double-edged sword? FEBS J. 2013;280:4131-48.
50. Bhatnagar S, Mittal A, Gupta SK, Kumar A. TWEAK causes myotube atrophy through coordinated activation of ubiquitin-proteasome system, autophagy, and caspases. J Cell Physiol. 2012;227:1042-51.
51. Spate U, Schulze PC. Proinflammatory cytokines and skeletal muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2004;7:265-9.
52. Li YP, Chen Y, John J, Moylan J, Jin B, Mann DL, et al. TNF-alpha acts via p38 MAPK to stimulate expression of the ubiquitin ligase atrogin1/MAFbx in skeletal muscle. FASEB J. 2005;19:362-70.
53. Li YP, Lecker SH, Chen Y, Waddell ID, Goldberg AL, Reid MB. TNF-alpha increases ubiquitin-conjugating activity in skeletal muscle by up-regulating UbcH2/E220k. FASEB J. 2003;17:1048-57.
54. Cai D, Frantz JD, Tawa Jr NE, Melendez PA, Oh BC, Lidov HG, et al. IKKbeta/NF-kappaB activation causes severe muscle wasting in mice. Cell. 2004;119:285-98.
55. Langen RC, Haegens A, Vernooy JH, Wouters EF, de Winther MP, Carlsen H, et al. NF-kappaB activation is required for the transition of pulmonary inflammation to muscle atrophy. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2012;47:288-97.
56. Schulze PC, Gielen S, Adams V, Linke A, Mobius-Winkler S, Erbs S, et al. Muscular levels of proinflammatory cytokines correlate with a reduced expression of insulin-like growth factor-I in chronic heart failure. Basic Res Cardiol. 2003;98:267-74.
57. Drummond MJ, Timmerman KL, Markofski MM, Walker DK, Dickinson JM, Jamaluddin M, et al. Short-term bed rest increases TLR4 and IL-6 expression in skeletal muscle of older adults. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2013;305:R216-23.
58. Doyle A, Zhang G, Abdel Fattah EA, Eissa NT, Li YP. Toll-like receptor 4 mediates lipopolysaccharide-induced muscle catabolism via coordinate activation of ubiquitin-proteasome and autophagy-lysosome pathways. FASEB J. 2011;25:99-110.
59. Caron AZ, Drouin G, Desrosiers J, Trensz F, Grenier G. A novel hindlimb immobilization procedure for studying skeletal muscle atrophy and recovery in mouse. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2009;106:2049-59.
60. Haegens A, Schols AM, Gorissen SH, van Essen AL, Snepvangers F, Gray DA, et al. NF-kappaB activation and polyubiquitin conjugation are required for pulmonary inflammation-induced diaphragm atrophy. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2012;302:L103-10.
61. Bodine SC, Baehr LM. Skeletal muscle atrophy and the E3 ubiquitin ligases MuRF1 and MAFbx/atrogin-1. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2014;307:E469-84.
62. Larsson L, Li X, Edstrom L, Eriksson LI, Zackrisson H, Argentini C, et al. Acute quadriplegia and loss of muscle myosin in patients treated with nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents and corticosteroids: mechanisms at the cellular and molecular levels. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:34-45.
63. Jespersen JG, Nedergaard A, Reitelseder S, Mikkelsen UR, Dideriksen KJ, Agergaard J, et al. Activated protein synthesis and suppressed protein breakdown signaling in skeletal muscle of critically ill patients. PLoS One. 2011;6:e18090.
64. Cohen S, Nathan JA, Goldberg AL. Muscle wasting in disease: molecular mechanisms and promising therapies. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2015;14:58-74.
65. Sandri M. Autophagy in skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett. 2010;584:1411-6.
66. Masiero E, Agatea L, Mammucari C, Blaauw B, Loro E, Komatsu M, et al. Autophagy is required to maintain muscle mass. Cell Metab. 2009;10:507-15.
67. Mammucari C, Milan G, Romanello V, Masiero E, Rudolf R, Del Piccolo P, et al. FoxO3 controls autophagy in skeletal muscle in vivo. Cell Metab. 2007;6:458-71.
68. Hussain SN, Mofarrahi M, Sigala I, Kim HC, Vassilakopoulos T, Maltais F, et al. Mechanical ventilation-induced diaphragm disuse in humans triggers autophagy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;182:1377-86.
69. Banduseela VC, Chen YW, Kultima HG, Norman HS, Aare S, Radell P, et al. Impaired autophagy, chaperone expression, and protein synthesis in response to critical illness interventions in porcine skeletal muscle. Physiol Genomics. 2013;45:477-86.
70. Li WW, Li J, Bao JK. Microautophagy: lesser-known self-eating. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2012;69:1125-36.
71. Cuervo AM, Wong E. Chaperone-mediated autophagy: roles in disease and aging. Cell Res. 2014;24:92-104.
72. Supinski GS, Wang L, Song XH, Moylan JS, Callahan LA. Muscle-specific calpastatin overexpression prevents diaphragm weakness in cecal ligation puncture-induced sepsis. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2014;117:921-9.
73. Supinski GS, Callahan LA. Calpain activation contributes to endotoxin-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2010;42:80-7.
74. Supinski GS, Vanags J, Callahan LA. Eicosapentaenoic acid preserves diaphragm force generation following endotoxin administration. Crit Care. 2010;14:R35.
75. Tang H, Lee M, Budak MT, Pietras N, Hittinger S, Vu M, et al. Intrinsic apoptosis in mechanically ventilated human diaphragm: linkage to a novel Fos/FoxO1/Stat3-Bim axis. FASEB J. 2011;25:2921-36.
76. Bolton CF, Gilbert JJ, Hahn AF, Sibbald WJ. Polyneuropathy in critically ill patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984;47:1223-31.
77. Bolton CF, Laverty DA, Brown JD, Witt NJ, Hahn AF, Sibbald WJ. Critically ill polyneuropathy: electrophysiological studies and differentiation from Guillain-Barre syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986;49:563-73.
78. Latronico N, Fenzi F, Recupero D, Guarneri B, Tomelleri G, Tonin P, et al. Critical illness myopathy and neuropathy. Lancet. 1996;347:1579-82.
79. Novak KR, Nardelli P, Cope TC, Filatov G, Glass JD, Khan J, et al. Inactivation of sodium channels underlies reversible neuropathy during critical illness in rats. J Clin Invest. 2009;119:1150-8.
80. Axer H, Grimm A, Porzelius C, Teschner U, Schumacher U, Witte OW, et al. Impairment of small somatic and autonomic nerve fibres in intensive care unit patients with severe sepsis and critical illness polyneuropathy - a single center controlled observational study. BMC Neurol. 2013;13:159.
81. Morelli A, Ertmer C, Westphal M, Rehberg S, Kampmeier T, Ligges S, et al. Effect of heart rate control with esmolol on hemodynamic and clinical outcomes in patients with septic shock: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013;310:1683-91.
82. Sato S, Shirato K, Tachiyashiki K, Imaizumi K. Muscle plasticity and beta-adrenergic receptors: adaptive responses of beta-adrenergic receptor expression to muscle hypertrophy and atrophy. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011;2011:729598.
83. Fenzi F, Latronico N, Refatti N, Rizzuto N. Enhanced expression of E-selectin on the vascular endothelium of peripheral nerve in critically ill patients with neuromuscular disorders. Acta Neuropathol. 2003;106:75-82.
84. Latronico N, Bolton CF. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10:931-41.
85. Hermans G, Wilmer A, Meersseman W, Milants I, Wouters PJ, Bobbaers H, et al. Impact of intensive insulin therapy on neuromuscular complications and ventilator dependency in the medical intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:480-9.
86. Van den Berghe G, Schoonheydt K, Becx P, Bruyninckx F, Wouters PJ. Insulin therapy protects the central and peripheral nervous system of intensive care patients. Neurology. 2005;64:1348-53.
87. Weber-Carstens S, Schneider J, Wollersheim T, Assmann A, Bierbrauer J, Marg A, et al. Critical illness myopathy and GLUT4: significance of insulin and muscle contraction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:387-96.
88. Rich MM, Pinter MJ. Crucial role of sodium channel fast inactivation in muscle fibre inexcitability in a rat model of critical illness myopathy. J Physiol. 2003;547:555-66.
89. Kraner SD, Wang Q, Novak KR, Cheng D, Cool DR, Peng J, et al. Upregulation of the CaV 1.1-ryanodine receptor complex in a rat model of critical illness myopathy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011;300:R1384-91.
90. Kraner SD, Novak KR, Wang Q, Peng J, Rich MM. Altered sodium channel-protein associations in critical illness myopathy. Skelet Muscle. 2012;2:17.
91. Brealey D, Brand M, Hargreaves I, Heales S, Land J, Smolenski R, et al. Association between mitochondrial dysfunction and severity and outcome of septic shock. Lancet. 2002;360:219-23.
92. Weiss SL, Selak MA, Tuluc F, Perales Villarroel J, Nadkarni VM, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in pediatric septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2015;16:e4-12.
93. Lee SJ, Reed LA, Davies MV, Girgenrath S, Goad ME, Tomkinson KN, et al. Regulation of muscle growth by multiple ligands signaling through activin type II receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:18117-22.
94. Wang YX, Rudnicki MA. Satellite cells, the engines of muscle repair. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2012;13:127-33.
95. Finfer S, Liu B, Chittock DR, Norton R, Myburgh JA, McArthur C, et al. Hypoglycemia and risk of death in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:1108-18.
96. Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, Nigos C, Pawlik AJ, Esbrook CL, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;373:1874-82.
97. Morris PE, Goad A, Thompson C, Taylor K, Harry B, Passmore L, et al. Early intensive care unit mobility therapy in the treatment of acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:2238-43.
98. Burtin C, Clerckx B, Robbeets C, Ferdinande P, Langer D, Troosters T, et al. Early exercise in critically ill patients enhances short-term functional recovery. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2499-505.
99. Needham DM, Korupolu R, Zanni JM, Pradhan P, Colantuoni E, Palmer JB, et al. Early physical medicine and rehabilitation for patients with acute respiratory failure: a quality improvement project. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;91:536-42.
100. Renaud G, Llano-Diez M, Ravara B, Gorza L, Feng HZ, Jin JP, et al. Sparing of muscle mass and function by passive loading in an experimental intensive care unit model. J Physiol. 2013;591:1385-402.
101. Llano-Diez M, Renaud G, Andersson M, Marrero HG, Cacciani N, Engquist H, et al. Mechanisms underlying ICU muscle wasting and effects of passive mechanical loading. Crit Care. 2012;16:R209.
102. Files DC, Liu C, Pereyra A, Wang ZM, Aggarwal NR, D'Alessio FR, et al. Therapeutic exercise attenuates neutrophilic lung injury and skeletal muscle wasting. Sci Transl Med. 2015;7:278ra232.
103. Nydahl P, Ruhl AP, Bartoszek G, Dubb R, Filipovic S, Flohr HJ, et al. Early mobilization of mechanically ventilated patients: a 1-day point-prevalence study in Germany. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:1178-86.
104. Berney SC, Harrold M, Webb SA, Seppelt I, Patman S, Thomas PJ, et al. Intensive care unit mobility practices in Australia and New Zealand: a point prevalence study. Crit Care Resusc. 2013;15:260-5.
105. Maffiuletti NA, Roig M, Karatzanos E, Nanas S. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation for preventing skeletal-muscle weakness and wasting in critically ill patients: a systematic review. BMC Med. 2013;11:137.
106. Parry SM, Berney S, Granger CL, Koopman R, El-Ansary D, Denehy L. Electrical muscle stimulation in the intensive care setting: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2406-18.