Neuromuscular blockade and skeletal muscle weakness in critically ill patients: Time to rethink the evidence?

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 185, Issue 9, 2012, Pages 911-917

  Puthucheary, Zudin ^a,b   Rawal, Jaikirty ^a   Ratnayake, Gamunu ^b   Harridge, Stephen ^b   Montgomery, Hugh ^a   Hart, Nicholas ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c GUY'S AND ST THOMAS' NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Intensive care unit acquired weakness; Neuromuscular blockade; Outcome

Indexed keywords

ATRACURIUM; CISATRACURIUM; COBROTOXIN; CORTICOSTEROID; ISOFLURANE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; PANCURONIUM; PIPECURONIUM; PLACEBO; VECURONIUM;

ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASTHMA; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COMPETITIVE INHIBITION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MONITORING; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN METABOLISM; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEDATION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ANIMALS; CONSCIOUS SEDATION; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; IMMOBILIZATION; INTENSIVE CARE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKADE; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS; RATS;

EID: 84860602146     PISSN: 1073449X     EISSN: 15354970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201107-1320OE     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. de Jonghe B, Lacherade J, Sharshar T, Outin H. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness: risk factors and prevention. Crit Care Med 2009;37:S309-S315.
2. Schefold JC, Bierbrauer J, Weber-Carstens S. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW) and muscle wasting in critically ill patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. J Cachex Sarcopenia Muscle 2010;1:147-157.
3. Zink W, Kollmar R, Schwab S. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy in the intensive care unit. Nat Rev Neurol 2009;5:372-379.
4. Ali NA, O'Brien JM Jr, Hoffmann SP, Phillips G, Garland A, Finley JCW, Almoosa K, Hejal R, Wolf KM, Lemeshow S, et al. for The Midwest Critical Care C. Acquired weakness, handgrip strength, and mortality in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:261-268.
5. De Jonghe B, Sharshar T, Lefaucheur JP, Authier FJ, Durand-Zaleski I, Boussarsar M, Cerf C, Renaud E, Mesrati F, Carlet J, et al. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA 2002;288:2859-2867. (Pubitemid 35425072)
6. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, Matte-Martyn A, Diaz-Granados N, Al-Saidi F, Cooper AB, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003;348:683-693. (Pubitemid 36237037)
7. Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matté A, Tomlinson G, Diaz-Granados N, Cooper A, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1293-1304.
8. Sharshar T, Bastuji-Garin S, Stevens RD, Durand MC, Malissin I, Rodriguez P, Cerf C, Outin H, De Jonghe B. Presence and severity of intensive care unit-acquired paresis at time of awakening are associated with increased intensive care unit and hospital mortality. Crit Care Med 2009;37:3047-3053.
9. Stevens RD, Dowdy DW, Michaels RK, Mendez-Tellez PA, Pronovost PJ, Needham DM. Neuromuscular dysfunction acquired in critical illness: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:1876-1891. (Pubitemid 47632264)
10. Stevens RD, Marshall SA, Cornblath DR, Hoke A, Needham DM, de Jonghe B, Ali NA, Sharshar T. A framework for diagnosing and classifying intensive care unit-acquired weakness. Crit Care Med 2009;37:S299-S308.
11. NICE. Triage, assessment, investigation and early management of head injury in infants, children and adults: Cg56 [Internet]. c2007 [accessed 2011 Jul]. Available from: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG56
12. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, McConnell Hammond FF, Harris OA, Hartl R, Manley GT, Nemecek A, Newell DW, Rosenthal G, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. XI. Anesthetics, analgesics, and sedatives. J Neurotrauma 2007;24:S71-S76.
13. Peberdy MA, Callaway CW, Neumar RW, Geocadin RG, Zimmerman JL, Donnino M, Gabrielli A, Silvers SM, Zaritsky AL, Merchant R, et al. Part 9: Post-cardiac arrest care. Circulation 2010;122:S768-S786.
14. Papazian L, Forel J-M, Gacouin A, Penot-Ragon C, Perrin G, Loundou A, Jaber S, Arnal J-M, Perez D, Seghboyan J-M, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2010;363:1107-1116.
15. Murray MJ, Cowen J, DeBlock H, Erstad B, Gray AW Jr, Tescher AN, McGee WT, Prielipp RC, Susla G, Jacobi J, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 2002;30:142-156. (Pubitemid 34112189)
16. Forel JM, Roch A, Marin V, Michelet P, Demory D, Blache JL, Perrin G, Gainnier M, Bongrand P, Papazian L. Neuromuscular blocking agents decrease inflammatory response in patients presenting with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2006;34:2749-2757. (Pubitemid 44610939)
17. McCall M, Jeejeebhoy K, Pencharz P, Moulton R. Effect of neuromuscular blockade on energy expenditure in patients with severe head injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003;27:27-35. (Pubitemid 36105640)
18. Bernard SA, Gray TW, Buist MD, Jones BM, Silvester W, Gutteridge G, Smith K. Treatment of comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with induced hypothermia. N Engl J Med 2002;346:557-563. (Pubitemid 34438816)
19. Fessler HE, Derdak S, Ferguson ND, Hager DN, Kacmarek RM, Thompson BT, Brower RG. A protocol for high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in adults: results from a roundtable discussion. Crit Care Med 2007;35:1649-1654. (Pubitemid 46985864)
20. MacFarlane IA, Rosenthal FD. Severe myopathy after status asthmaticus. Lancet 1977;2:615. (Pubitemid 8176625)
21. de Coul AAWO, Lambregts PCLA, Koeman J, van Puyenbroek MJE, Ter Laak HJ, Gabreëls-Festen AAWM. Neuromuscular complications in patients given Pavulon (pancuronium bromide) during artificial ventilation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1985;87:17-22. (Pubitemid 15103720)
22. Knox AJ, Mascie-Taylor BH, Muers MF. Acute hydrocortisone myopathy in acute severe asthma. Thorax 1986;41:411-412. (Pubitemid 16114972)
23. Van Marle W, Woods KL. Acute hydrocortisone myopathy. BMJ 1980;281:271-272. (Pubitemid 10085281)
24. Lagasse RS, Katz RI, Petersen M, Jacobson MJ, Poppers PJ. Prolonged neuromuscular blockade following vecuronium infusion. J Clin Anesth 1990;2:269-271.
25. Partridge BL, Abrams JH, Bazemore C, Rubin R. Prolonged neuromuscular blockade after long-term infusion of vecuronium bromide in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1990;18:1177-1179. (Pubitemid 20364064)
26. Shee CD. Risk factors for hydrocortisone myopathy in acute severe asthma. Respir Med 1990;84:229-233. (Pubitemid 20223475)
27. Gooch JL, Suchyta MR, Balbierz JM, Petajan JH, Clemmer TP. Prolonged paralysis after treatment with neuromuscular junction blocking agents. Crit Care Med 1991;19:1125-1131.
28. Griffin D, Fairman N, Coursin D, Rawsthorne L, Grossman JE. Acute myopathy during treatment of status asthmaticus with corticosteroids and steroidal muscle relaxants. Chest 1992;102:510-514.
29. Hirano M, Ott BR, Raps EC, Minetti C, Lennihan L, Libbey NP, Bonilla E, Hays AP. Acute quadriplegic myopathy: a complication of treatment with steroids, nondepolarizing blocking agents, or both. Neurology 1992;42:2082-2087.
30. Kupfer Y, Namba T, Kaldawi E, Tessler S. Prolonged weakness after long-term infusion of vecuronium bromide. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:484-486.
31. Douglass JA, Tuxen DV, Horne M, Scheinkestel CD, Weinmann M, Czarny D, Bowes G. Myopathy in severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;146:517-519.
32. Hanson P, Dive A, Brucher JM, Bisteau M, Dangoisse M, Deltombe T. Acute corticosteroid myopathy in intensive care patients. Muscle Nerve 1997;20:1371-1380.
33. Watling SM, Dasta JF. Prolonged paralysis in intensive care unit patients after the use of neuromuscular blocking agents: a review of the literature. Crit Care Med 1994;22:884-893. (Pubitemid 24151086)
34. Fischer JR, Baer RK. Acute myopathy associated with combined use of corticosteroids and neuromuscular blocking agents. Ann Pharmacother 1996;30:1437-1445. (Pubitemid 27020009)
35. Casale LM, Siegel RE. Neuromuscular blockade in the ICU. Chest 1993;104:1639-1641.
36. Hansen-Flaschen J, Cowen J, Raps EC. Neuromuscular blockade in the intensive care unit. More than we bargained for. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:234-236. (Pubitemid 23025946)
37. Topulos GP. Neuromuscular blockade in adult intensive care. New Horiz 1993;1:447-462.
38. Coursin DB. Neuromuscular blockade. Should patients be relaxed in the ICU? Chest 1992;102:988-989.
39. Isenstein DA, Venner DS, Duggan J. Neuromuscular blockade in the intensive care unit. Chest 1992;102:1258-1266.
40. Miller R. Report of Anesthetic and Life Support Drugs Advisory Committee meeting. Rockville, MD: Food and Drug Administration; 1992. US Food and Drug Administration's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research Publication No. 202-234-4433.
41. May JR, Rutkowski AF. The role of nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents in mechanically ventilated patients. J Med Assoc Ga 1994;83:473-476, 484.
42. Prielipp RC, Coursin DB, Wood KE, Murray MJ. Complications associated with sedative and neuromuscular blocking drugs in critically ill patients. Crit Care Clin 1995;11:983-1003.
43. Shapiro BA, Warren J, Egol AB, Greenbaum DM, Jacobi J, Nasraway SA, Schein RM, Spevetz A, Stone JR. Practice parameters for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient: an executive summary. Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 1995;23:1601-1605.
44. Deem S, Lee CM, Curtis JR. Acquired neuromuscular disorders in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;168:735-739. (Pubitemid 37188296)
45. Florini JR, Samuel DS, Ewton DZ, Kirk C, Sklar RM. Stimulation of myogenic differentiation by a neuregulin, glial growth factor 2. J Biol Chem 1996;271:12699-12702.
46. Lebrasseur NK, Cote GM, Miller TA, Fielding RA, Sawyer DB. Regulation of neuregulin/erbb signaling by contractile activity in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2003;284:C1149-C1155. (Pubitemid 36457395)
47. Rich MM, Pinter MJ. Sodium channel inactivation in an animal model of acute quadriplegic myopathy. Ann Neurol 2001;50:26-33.
48. Sacheck JM, Hyatt JP, Raffaello A, Jagoe RT, Roy RR, Edgerton VR, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL. Rapid disuse and denervation atrophy involve transcriptional changes similar to those of muscle wasting during systemic diseases. FASEB J 2007;21:140-155. (Pubitemid 46052553)
49. Cruz-Martinez A, Arpa J. Muscle fiber conduction velocity in situ (MFCV) in denervation, reinnervation and disuse atrophy. Acta Neurol Scand 1999;100:337-340. (Pubitemid 29482560)
50. Vu D, Murty M, McMorran M. Statins: rhabdomyolysis and myopathy. CMAJ 2002;166:85-86, 90-91.
51. Searles RP, Bankhurst AD, Ahlin TD, Messner RP. Antacid-induced hypophosphatemia: an unusual cause of "Pseudo-myopathy." J Rheumatol 1977;4:176-178.
52. Finsterer J, Hess B, Jarius C, Stollberger C, Budka H, Mamoli B. Malnutrition-induced hypokalemic myopathy in chronic alcoholism. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1998;36:369-373. (Pubitemid 28375843)
53. Sharief MK, Robinson SF, Swash M. Hypokalaemic myopathy in alcoholism. Neuromuscul Disord 1997;7:533-535. (Pubitemid 28008963)
54. Kumar NB, Kazi A, Smith T, Crocker T, Yu D, Reich RR, Reddy K, Hastings S, Exterman M, Balducci L, et al. Cancer cachexia: traditional therapies and novel molecular mechanism-based approaches to treatment. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2010;11:107-117.
55. Ventura-Clapier R, De Sousa E, Veksler V. Metabolic myopathy in heart failure. News Physiol Sci 2002;17:191-196.
56. Gosselink R, Troosters T, Decramer M. Peripheral muscle weakness contributes to exercise limitation in COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:976-980. (Pubitemid 26081648)
57. Helliwell TR, Coakley JH, Wagenmakers AJ, Griffiths RD, Campbell IT, Green CJ, McClelland P, Bone JM. Necrotizing myopathy in critically-ill patients. J Pathol 1991;164:307-314.
58. Poulsen JB, Møller K, Jensen CV, Weisdorf S, Kehlet H, Perner A. Effect of transcutaneous electrical muscle stimulation on muscle volume in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2011;39:456-461.
59. Puthucheary Z, Harridge S, Hart N. Skeletal muscle dysfunction in critical care: wasting, weakness, and rehabilitation strategies. Crit Care Med 2010;38:S676-S682.
60. Puthucheary Z, Montgomery H, Moxham J, Harridge S, Hart N. Structure to function: muscle failure in critically ill patients. J Physiol 2010;588:4641-4648.
61. Löfberg E, Gutierrez A, Wernerman J, Anderstam B, Mitch WE, Price SR, Bergström J, Alvestrand A. Effects of high doses of glucocorticoids on free amino acids, ribosomes and protein turnover in human muscle. Eur J Clin Invest 2002;32:345-353. (Pubitemid 36228395)
62. Schakman O, Gilson H, Thissen JP. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced myopathy. J Endocrinol 2008;197:1-10. (Pubitemid 351566920)
63. Fitts RH, Romatowski JG, Peters JR, Paddon-Jones D, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA. The deleterious effects of bed rest on human skeletal muscle fibers are exacerbated by hypercortisolemia and ameliorated by dietary supplementation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007;293:C313-C320. (Pubitemid 47105022)
64. Coakley JH, Nagendran K, Honavar M, Hinds CJ. Preliminary observations on the neuromuscular abnormalities in patients with organ failure and sepsis. Intensive Care Med 1993;19:323-328. (Pubitemid 23284794)
65. Coakley JH, Nagendran K, Yarwood GD, Honavar M, Hinds CJ. Patterns of neurophysiological abnormality in prolonged critical illness. Intensive Care Med 1998;24:801-807. (Pubitemid 28431668)
66. Segredo V, Caldwell JE, Matthay MA, Sharma ML, Gruenke LD, Miller RD. Persistent paralysis in critically patients after long term administration of vecuronium. N Engl J Med 1992;327:524-528.
67. Behbehani NA, Al-Mane F, D'Yachkova Y, Pare P, FitzGerald JM. Myopathy following mechanical ventilation for acute severe asthma: the role of muscle relaxants and corticosteroids. Chest 1999;115:1627-1631. (Pubitemid 29275656)
68. Adnet F, Dhissi G, Borron SW, Galinski M, Rayeh F, Cupa M, Pourriat JL, Lapostolle F. Complication profiles of adult asthmatics requiring paralysis during mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1729-1736. (Pubitemid 33139833)
69. Garnacho-Montero J, Madrazo-Osuna J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Ortiz- Leyba C, Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Barrero-Almodovar A, Garnacho-Montero MC, Moyano-Del-Estad MR. Critical illness polyneuropathy: risk factors and clinical consequences. A cohort study in septic patients. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:1288-1296. (Pubitemid 32758926)
70. Latronico N, Fenzi F, Recupero D, Guarneri B, Tomelleri G, Tonin P, De Maria G, Antonini L, Rizzuto N, Candiani A. Critical illness myopathy and neuropathy. Lancet 1996;347:1579-1582. (Pubitemid 26170874)
71. Garnacho-Montero J, Amaya-Villar R, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Madrazo- Osuna J, Ortiz-Leyba C. Effect of critical illness polyneuropathy on the withdrawal from mechanical ventilation and the length of stay in septic patients. Crit Care Med 2005;33:349-354. (Pubitemid 40216548)
72. Puthucheary Z, Hart N, Montgomery H. Neuromuscular blockers and ARDS. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2563.
73. Glover EI, Phillips SM, Oates BR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Selby A, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Immobilization induces anabolic resistance in human myofibrillar protein synthesis with low and high dose amino acid infusion. J Physiol 2008;586:6049-6061.
74. Hamburg NM, McMackin CJ, Huang AL, Shenouda SM, Widlansky ME, Schulz E, Gokce N, Ruderman NB, Keaney JF Jr, Vita JA. Physical inactivity rapidly induces insulin resistance and microvascular dysfunction in healthy volunteers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007;27:2650-2656. (Pubitemid 350158918)
75. Kortebein P, Ferrando A, Lombeida J, Wolfe R, Evans WJ. Effect of 10 days of bed rest on skeletal muscle in healthy older adults. JAMA 2007;297:1772-1774. (Pubitemid 46658661)
76. Duchateau J, Hainaut K. Electrical and mechanical changes in immobilized human muscle. J Appl Physiol 1987;62:2168-2173. (Pubitemid 17093424)
77. Trapani G, Altomare C, Liso G, Sanna E, Biggio G. Propofol in anesthesia. Mechanism of action, structure-activity relationships, and drug delivery. Curr Med Chem 2000;7:249-271. (Pubitemid 30396448)
78. Rang HPDM, Ritter JM. Pharmacology. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1999.
79. Jentsch TJ, Stein V, Weinreich F, Zdebik AA. Molecular structure and physiological function of chloride channels. Physiol Rev 2002;82:503-568. (Pubitemid 34654460)
80. Urazaev AK, Magsumov ST, Poletayev GI, Nikolsky EE, Vyskocil F. Muscle NMDA receptors regulate the resting membrane potential through NO-synthase. Physiol Res 1995;44:205-208.
81. MacDonald RL, Barker JL. Enhancement of GABA-mediated post-synaptic inhibition in cultured mammalian spinal cord neurons: a common mode of anticonvulsant action. Brain Res 1979;167:323-336. (Pubitemid 9149938)
82. Strom T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet 2010;375:475-480.
83. Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, Nigos C, Pawlik AJ, Esbrook CL, Spears L, Miller M, Franczyk M, Deprizio D, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009;373:1874-1882.
84. Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD, Thomason JW, Schweickert WD, Pun BT, Taichman DB, Dunn JG, Pohlman AS, Kinniry PA, et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (awakening and breathing controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2008;371:126-134.
85. Kress JP. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2000;343:814-815.
86. Needham DM. Mobilizing patients in the intensive care unit: improving neuromuscular weakness and physical function. JAMA 2008;300:1685-1690.
87. Neligan P. Mechanical ventilation tutorials [Internet; accessed 2011 Jul]. Available from: http://www.ccmtutorials.com/rs/mv/page7.Htm
88. Baum M, Benzer H, Putensen C, Koller W, Putz G. [Biphasic positive airway pressure (BIPAP) - a new form of augmented ventilation]. Anaesthesist 1989;38:452-458.
89. Brochard L, Harf A, Lorino H, Lemaire F. Inspiratory pressure support prevents diaphragmatic fatigue during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:513-521. (Pubitemid 19057434)
90. Esteban A, Alia I, Ibanez J, Benito S, Tobin MJ. Modes of mechanical ventilation and weaning. A national survey of Spanish hospitals. The Spanish lung failure collaborative group. Chest 1994;106:1188-1193. (Pubitemid 24309561)
91. Frutos F, Alia I, Esteban A, Anzueto A. Evolution in the utilization of the mechanical ventilation in the critical care unit. Minerva Anestesiol 2001;67:215-222.
92. Brochard L, Rauss A, Benito S, Conti G, Mancebo J, Rekik N, Gasparetto A, Lemaire F. Comparison of three methods of gradual withdrawal from ventilatory support during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:896-903. (Pubitemid 24318010)
93. Esteban A, Anzueto A, Alia I, Gordo F, Apezteguia C, Palizas F, Cide D, Goldwaser R, Soto L, Bugedo G, et al. How is mechanical ventilation employed in the intensive care unit? An international utilization review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;161:1450-1458. (Pubitemid 30329011)
94. Merriman HM. The techniques used to sedate ventilated patients. A survey of methods used in 34 ICUs in Great Britain. Intensive Care Med 1981;7:217-224. (Pubitemid 11043018)
95. Bion JF, Ledingham IM. Sedation in intensive care - a postal survey. Intensive Care Med 1987;13:215-216.
96. Murray MJ, Strickland RA, Weiler C. The use of neuromuscular blocking drugs in the intensive care unit: a US perspective. Intensive Care Med 1993;19:S40-S44. (Pubitemid 24036422)
97. Leatherman JW, Fluegel WL, David WS, Davies SF, Iber C. Muscle weakness in mechanically ventilated patients with severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1686-1690. (Pubitemid 26141357)
98. Kesler SM, Sprenkle MD, David WS, Leatherman JW. Severe weakness complicating status asthmaticus despite minimal duration of neuromuscular paralysis. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:157-160.
99. Welle S, Brooks A, Thornton CA. Senescence-related changes in gene expression in muscle: similarities and differences between mice and men. Physiol Genomics 2001;5:67-73. (Pubitemid 33675203)
100. Komamura K, Shirotani-Ikejima H, Tatsumi R, Tsujita-Kuroda Y, Kitakaze M, Miyatake K, Sunagawa K, Miyata T. Differential gene expression in the rat skeletal and heart muscle in glucocorticoid-induced myopathy: analysis by microarray. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2003;17:303-310. (Pubitemid 37500181)
101. Demetrius L. Caloric restriction, metabolic rate, and entropy. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2004;59:B902-B915.
102. Demetrius L. Of mice and men. EMBO Rep 2005;6:39-44.
103. Waterlow JCGP, Millward DJ. Protein turnover in mammalian tissues and in the whole body. Amsterdam: North Holland; 1978.
104. Phillips SM, Glover EI, Rennie MJ. Alterations of protein turnover underlying disuse atrophy in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 2009;107:645-654.
105. Dworkin BR, Dworkin S, Tang X. Carotid and aortic baroreflexes of the rat: I. Open-loop steady-state properties and blood pressure variability. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000;279:R1910-R1921.
106. Dworkin BR, Tang X, Snyder AJ, Dworkin S. Carotid and aortic baroreflexes of the rat: II. Open-loop frequency response and the blood pressure spectrum. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000;279:R1922-R1933.
107. Norman H, Nordquist J, Andersson P, Ansved T, Tang X, Dworkin B, Larsson L. Impact of post-synaptic block of neuromuscular transmission, muscle unloading and mechanical ventilation on skeletal muscle protein and mRNA expression. Pflugers Arch 2006;453:53-66. (Pubitemid 44454887)
108. Nordquist J, Hoglund AS, Norman H, Tang X, Dworkin B, Larsson L. Transcription factors in muscle atrophy caused by blocked neuromuscular transmission and muscle unloading in rats. Mol Med 2007;13:461-470. (Pubitemid 47585740)
109. Ochala J, Gustafson AM, Diez ML, Renaud G, Li M, Aare S, Qaisar R, Banduseela VC, Hedstrom Y, Tang X, et al. Preferential skeletal muscle myosin loss in response to mechanical silencing in a novel rat intensive care unit model: underlying mechanisms. J Physiol 2011;589:2007-2026.
110. Norman H, Kandala K, Kolluri R, Zackrisson H, Nordquist J, Walther S, Eriksson LI, Larsson L. A porcine model of acute quadriplegic myopathy: a feasibility study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2006;50:1058-1067. (Pubitemid 44434743)
111. Aare S, Ochala J, Norman HS, Radell P, Eriksson LI, Goransson H, Chen YW, Hoffman EP, Larsson L. Mechanisms underlying the sparing of masticatory versus limb muscle function in an experimental critical illness model. Physiol Genomics 2011;43:1334-1350.
112. Banduseela VC, Ochala J, Chen YW, Goransson H, Norman H, Radell P, Eriksson LI, Hoffman EP, Larsson L. Gene expression and muscle fiber function in a porcine ICU model. Physiol Genomics 2009;39:141-159.
113. Ochala J, Ahlbeck K, Radell PJ, Eriksson LI, Larsson L. Factors underlying the early limb muscle weakness in acute quadriplegic myopathy using an experimental ICU porcine model. PLoS ONE 2011;6:e20876.
114. Ochala J, Renaud G, Llano Diez M, Banduseela VC, Aare S, Ahlbeck K, Radell PJ, Eriksson LI, Larsson L. Diaphragm muscle weakness in an experimental porcine intensive care unit model. PLoS ONE 2011;6:e20558.
115. Mesnil M, Capdevila X, Bringuier S, Trine PO, Falquet Y, Charbit J, Roustan JP, Chanques G, Jaber S. Long-term sedation in intensive care unit: a randomized comparison between inhaled sevoflurane and intravenous propofol or midazolam. Intensive Care Med 2011;37:933-941.
116. Seymour JM, Ward K, Sidhu P, Puthucheary Z, Steier J, Jolley C, Rafferty G, Polkey MI, Moxham J. Ultrasound measurement of rectus femoris cross-sectional area and the relationship to quadriceps strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2009;64:418.
117. Leijten FS, Harinck-de Weerd JE, Poortvliet DC, de Weerd AW. The role of polyneuropathy in motor convalescence after prolonged mechanical ventilation. JAMA 1995;274:1221-1225.
118. Witt NJ, Zochodne DW, Bolton CF, Grand'Maison F, Wells G, Young GB, Sibbald WJ. Peripheral nerve function in sepsis and multiple organ failure. Chest 1991;99:176-184.
119. Nanas S, Kritikos K, Angelopoulos E, Siafaka A, Tsikriki S, Poriazi M, Kanaloupiti D, Kontogeorgi M, Pratikaki M, Zervakis D, et al. Predisposing factors for critical illness polyneuromyopathy in a multidisciplinary intensive care unit. Acta Neurol Scand 2008;118:175-181.
120. Campellone JV, Lacomis D, Kramer DJ, Van Cott AC, Giuliani MJ. Acute myopathy after liver transplantation. Neurology 1998;50:46-53. (Pubitemid 128722716)
121. de Letter MA, Schmitz PI, Visser LH, Verheul FA, Schellens RL, Op de Coul DA, van der Meche FG. Risk factors for the development of polyneuropathy and myopathy in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2001;29:2281-2286. (Pubitemid 34038159)
122. Bednarik J, Vondracek P, Dusek L, Moravcova E, Cundrle I. Risk factors for critical illness polyneuromyopathy. J Neurol 2005;252:343-351. (Pubitemid 40562168)