Phenotypic flexibility as a measure of health: the optimal nutritional stress response test

Genes and Nutrition

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2015, Pages

  Stroeve, Johanna H M ^a   van Wietmarschen, Herman ^a   Kremer, Bas H A ^a   van Ommen, Ben ^a   Wopereis, Suzan ^a  

^a TNO   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Metabolic challenge; Metabolic health; Nutritional stress response test; OGTT; Phenotypic flexibility

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; GLUCOSE; LIPID; MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PROTEIN; SATURATED FATTY ACID;

ARTICLE; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; FAT TOLERANCE TEST; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; MACRONUTRIENT; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; OBESITY; ORAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST; ORAL PROTEIN TOLERANCE TEST; PHENOTYPIC FLEXIBILITY; PROVOCATION TEST;

EID: 84928409628     PISSN: 15558932     EISSN: 18653499     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12263-015-0459-1     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Ahuja KDK, Robertson IK, Ball MJ (2009) Acute effects of food on postprandial blood pressure and measures of arterial stiffness in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 90:298–303
2. Askari AA, Thomson S, Edin ML, Lih FB, Zeldin DC, Bishop-Bailey D (2014) Basal and inducible anti-inflammatory epoxygenase activity in endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 446:633–637
3. Bae J, Bassenge E, Kim K, Kim Y, Kim K, Lee H, Moon K, Lee M, Park K, Schwemmer M (2001) Postprandial hypertriglyceridemia impairs endothelial function by enhanced oxidant stress. Atherosclerosis 155:517–523
4. Bartoli E, Fra GP, Schianca GPC (2011) The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) revisited. Eur J Intern Med 22:8–12
5. Blaak EE, Hul G, Verdich C, Stich V, Martinez A, Petersen M, Feskens EFM, Patel K, Oppert JM, Barbe P, Toubro S, Anderson I, Polak J, Astrup A, Macdonald IA, Langin D, Holst C, Sørensen TI, Saris WHM (2006) Fat oxidation before and after a high fat load in the obese insulin-resistant state. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1462–1469
6. Blackburn P, Despres JP, Lamarche B, Tremblay A, Bergeron J, Lemieux I, Couillard C (2006) Postprandial variations of plasma inflammatory markers in abdominally obese men. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:1747–1754
7. Blix G (1925) Studies in diabetic lipemia. Berlingska Boktryckeriet, Lund
8. Bloor WR (1916) Fat assimilation. J Biol Chem 24:447–460
9. Bosch JP, Lauer A, Glabman S (1984) Short-term protein loading in assessment of patients with renal disease. Am J Med 77:873–879
10. Brufau G, Bahr MJ, Staels B, Claudel T, Ockenga J, Böker KHW, Murphy EJ, Prado K, Stellaard F, Manns MP, Kuipers F, Tietge UJF (2010) Plasma bile acids are not associated with energy metabolism in humans. Nutr Metab 7:73
11. Brun G (1940) Changes in the lipid contents of serum in patients with manic-depressive psychosis, 1st edn. Munksgaard, Copenhagen, Denmark
12. Campbell CG, Brown BD, Dufner D, Thorland WG (2006) Effects of soy or milk protein during a high-fat feeding challenge on oxidative stress, inflammation, and lipids in healthy men. Lipids 41:257–265
13. Casas-Agustench P, López-Uriarte P, Bulló M, Ros E, Gómez-Flores A, Salas-Salvadó J (2009) Acute effects of three high-fat meals with different fat saturations on energy expenditure, substrate oxidation and satiety. Clin Nutr 28:39–45
14. Ceriello A, Quagliaro L, Piconi L, Assaloni R, Da Ros R, Maier A, Esposito K, Giugliano D (2004) Effect of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia on circulating adhesion molecules and oxidative stress generation and the possible role of simvastatin treatment. Diabetes 53:701–710
15. Cheng Y, Kao W-L, Mitchell BD, Sharrett AR, Ryan KA, Vogel RA, Shuldiner AR, Pollin TI (2010) Genetic effects on postprandial variations of inflammatory markers in healthy individuals. Obesity 18:1417–1422
16. Coutinho ER, Macedo GM, Campos FS, Bandeira FA (2008) Changes in HDL cholesterol and in the inflammatory markers of atherogenesis after an oral fat load in type-2 diabetic patients and normal individuals. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 6:153–157
17. Cruz-Teno C, Pérez-Martínez P, Delgado-Lista J, Yubero-Serrano EM, García-Ríos A, Marín C, Gómez P, Jiménez-Gómez Y, Camargo A, Rodríguez-Cantalejo F, Malagón MM, Pérez-Jiménez F, Roche HM, López-Miranda J (2012) Dietary fat modifies the postprandial inflammatory state in subjects with metabolic syndrome: the LIPGENE study. Mol Nutr Food Res 56:854–865
18. Dekker MJ, Wright AJ, Mazurak VC, Graham TE, Marangoni AG, Robinson LE (2007) New oral fat tolerance tests feature tailoring of the polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio to elicit a specific postprandial response. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 32:1073–1081
19. Dekker MJ, Wright AJ, Mazurak VC, Marangoni AG, Rush JW, Graham TE, Robinson LE (2009) Fasting triacylglycerol status, but not polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio, influences the postprandial response to a series of oral fat tolerance tests. J Nutr Biochem 20:694–704
20. Derosa G, Ferrari I, D’Angelo A, Salvadeo SAT, Fogari E, Gravina A, Mereu R, Palumbo I, Maffioli P, Randazzo S, Cicero AFG (2010) Effects of a standardized oral fat load on vascular remodelling markers in healthy subjects. Microvasc Res 80:110–115
21. Esposito K, Nappo F, Giugliano F, Di Palo C, Ciotola M, Barbieri M, Paolisso G, Giugliano D (2003) Meal modulation of circulating interleukin 18 and adiponectin concentrations in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr 78:1135–1140
22. Esser D, Oosterink E, op ‘t Roodt J, Henry RMA, Stehouwer CDA, Müller M, Afman LA (2013a) Vascular and inflammatory high fat meal responses in young healthy men; a discriminative role of IL-8 observed in a randomized trial. PLoS One 8:e53474
23. Esser D, van Dijk SJ, Oosterink E, Müller M, Afman LA (2013b) A high-fat SFA, MUFA, or n3 PUFA challenge affects the vascular response and initiates an activated state of cellular adherence in lean and obese middle-aged men. J Nutr 143:843–851
24. Esser D, Mars M, Oosterink E, Stalmach A, Müller M, Afman LA (2014) Dark chocolate consumption improves leukocyte adhesion factors and vascular function in overweight men. FASEB J 28:1464–1473
25. Fernandes J, van de Kamer JH (1968) Hexose and protein tolerance tests in children with liver glycogenosis caused by a deficiency of the debranching enzyme system. Pediatrics 41:935–944
26. Garcia-Rizo C, Fernandez-Egea E, Miller BJ, Oliveira C, Justicia A, Griffith JK, Heaphy CM, Bernardo M, Kirkpatrick B (2013) Abnormal glucose tolerance, white blood cell count, and telomere length in newly diagnosed, antidepressant-naïve patients with depression. Brain Behav Immun 28:49–53
27. Gault VA, McClean PL, Cassidy RS, Irwin N, Flatt PR (2007) Chemical gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor antagonism protects against obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and associated disturbances in mice fed high-fat and cafeteria diets. Diabetologia 50:1752–1762
28. Giordano RM, Newman JW, Pedersen TL, Ramos MI, Stebbins CL (2011) Effects of dynamic exercise on plasma arachidonic acid epoxides and diols in human volunteers. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 21:471–479
29. Gosmanov AR, Smiley DD, Robalino G, Siquiera J, Khan B, Le N, Patel RS, Quyyumi AA, Peng L, Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE (2010) Effects of oral and intravenous fat load on blood pressure, endothelial function, sympathetic activity, and oxidative stress in obese healthy subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 299:E953–E958
30. Hansotia T, Maida A, Flock G, Yamada Y, Tsukiyama K, Seino Y, Drucker DJ (2007) Extrapancreatic incretin receptors modulate glucose homeostasis, body weight, and energy expenditure. J Clin Invest 117:143–152
31. Harte AL, Varma MC, Tripathi G, Mcgee KC, Al-Daghri NM, Al-Attas OS, Sabico S, O’Hare JP, Ceriello A, Saravanan P, Kumar S, Mcternan PG (2012) High fat intake leads to acute postprandial exposure to circulating endotoxin in type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabetes Care 35:375–382
32. Hiller A, Linder GC, Lundsgaard C, Van Slyke DD (1924) Fat metabolism in nephritis. J Exp Med 39:931–955
33. Huber M, Knottnerus JA, Green L, van der Horst H, Jadad AR, Kromhout D, Leonard B, Lorig K, Loureiro MI, van der Meer JW, Schnabel P, Smith R, van Weel C, Smid H (2011) How should we define health? BMJ 343:d4163
34. Iraklianou S, Melidonis A, Tournis S, Konstandelou E, Tsatsoulis A, Elissaf M, Sideris D (2001) Postprandial leptin responses after an oral fat tolerance test: differences in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 24:1299–1301
35. Jellema A, Plat J, Mensink RP (2004) Weight reduction, but not a moderate intake of fish oil, lowers concentrations of inflammatory markers and PAI-1 antigen in obese men during the fasting and postprandial state. Eur J Clin Invest 34:766–773
36. Kim S, Nian C, McIntosh CHS (2007) Resistin is a key mediator of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) stimulation of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in adipocytes. J Biol Chem 282:34139–34147
37. Kirkpatrick B, Fernandez-Egea E, Garcia-Rizo C, Bernardo M (2009) Differences in glucose tolerance between deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 107:122–127
38. Krug S, Kastenmüller G, Stückler F, Rist MJ, Skurk T, Sailer M, Raffler J, Römisch-Margl W, Adamski J, Prehn C, Frank T, Engel K, Hofmann T, Luy B, Zimmermann R, Moritz F, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Krumsiek J, Kremer W, Huber F, Oeh U, Theis FJ, Szymczak W, Hauner H, Suhre K, Daniel H (2012) The dynamic range of the human metabolome revealed by challenges. FASEB J 26:2607–2619
39. Lundman P, Boquist S, Samnegård A, Bennermo M, Held C, Ericsson C, Silveira A, Hamsten A, Tornvall P (2007) A high-fat meal is accompanied by increased plasma interleukin-6 concentrations. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17:195–202
40. MacEneaney OJ, Harrison M, O’Gorman DJ, Pankratieva EV, O’Connor PL, Moyna NM (2009) Effect of prior exercise on postprandial lipemia and markers of inflammation and endothelial activation in normal weight and overweight adolescent boys. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:721–729
41. Madec S, Corretti V, Santini E, Ferrannini E, Solini A (2011) Effect of a fatty meal on inflammatory markers in healthy volunteers with a family history of type 2 diabetes. Br J Nutr 106:364–368
42. Madhu SV, Mittal V, Krishna Ram B, Srivastava DK (2005) Postprandial lipid abnormalities in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Assoc Physicians India 53:1043–1046
43. Madhu SV, Kant S, Srivastava S, Kant R, Sharma SB, Bhadoria DP (2008) Postprandial lipaemia in patients with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 80:380–385
44. Manning PJ, Sutherland WHF, McGrath MM, De Jong SA, Walker RJ, Williams MJA (2008) Postprandial cytokine concentrations and meal composition in obese and lean women. Obesity 16:2046–2052
45. Matysik S, Martin J, Bala M, Scherer M, Schäffler A, Schmitz G (2011) Bile acid signaling after an oral glucose tolerance test. Chem Phys Lipids 164:525–529
46. McClean PL, Irwin N, Cassidy RS, Holst JJ, Gault VA, Flatt PR (2007) GIP receptor antagonism reverses obesity, insulin resistance, and associated metabolic disturbances induced in mice by prolonged consumption of high-fat diet. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 293:E1746–E1755
47. Mekki N, Charbonnier M, Borel P, Leonardi J, Juhel C, Portugal H, Lairon D (2002) Butter differs from olive oil and sunflower oil in its effects on postprandial lipemia and triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins after single mixed meals in healthy young men. J Nutr 132:3642–3649
48. Metzig AM, Schwarzenberg SJ, Fox CK, Deering MM, Nathan BM, Kelly AS (2011) Postprandial endothelial function, inflammation, and oxidative stress in obese children and adolescents. Obesity 19:1279–1283
49. Musso G, Gambino R, Pacini G, De Michieli F, Cassader M (2009) Prolonged saturated fat-induced, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide elevation is associated with adipokine imbalance and liver injury in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: dysregulated enteroadipocyte axis as a novel feature of fatty liver. Am J Clin Nutr 89:558–567
50. Nagashima H, Endo M (2011) Pitavastatin prevents postprandial endothelial dysfunction via reduction of the serum triglyceride level in obese male subjects. Heart Vessels 26:428–434
51. Nakatsuji H, Kishida K, Kitamura T, Nakajima C, Funahashi T, Shimomura I (2010) Dysregulation of glucose, insulin, triglyceride, blood pressure, and oxidative stress after an oral glucose tolerance test in men with abdominal obesity. Metab Clin Exp 59:520–526
52. Nappo F, Esposito K, Cioffi M, Giugliano G, Molinari AM, Paolisso G, Marfella R, Giugliano D (2002) Postprandial endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in type 2 diabetic patients: role of fat and carbohydrate meals. J Am Coll Cardiol 39:1145–1150
53. Neumann A (1907) Uber ultramikroskopische Blutuntersuchungen zur Zeit der Fettresorption bei Gesunden und Kranken. Wien Clin Wschr 20:851
54. Newens KJ, Thompson AK, Jackson KG, Wright J, Williams CM (2011) Acute effects of elevated NEFA on vascular function: a comparison of SFA and MUFA. Br J Nutr 105:1343–1351
55. Oakley FR, Sanders TAB, Miller GJ (1998) Postprandial effects of an oleic acid-rich oil compared with butter on clotting factor VII and fibrinolysis in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr 68:1202–1207
56. Ogita K, Ai M, Tanaka A, Ito Y, Hirano T, Yoshino G, Shimokado K (2008) Serum concentration of small dense low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol during oral glucose tolerance test and oral fat tolerance test. Clin Chim Acta 387:36–41
57. Peairs AD, Rankin JW, Lee Y (2011) Effects of acute ingestion of different fats on oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight and obese adults. Nutr J 10:122
58. Pellis L, van Erk MJ, van Ommen B, Bakker GC, Hendriks HF, Cnubben NH, Kleemann R, van Someren EP, Bobeldijk I, Rubingh CM, Wopereis S (2012) Plasma metabolomics and proteomics profiling after a postprandial challenge reveal subtle diet effects on human metabolic status. Metabolomics 8:347–359
59. Phillips LK, Peake JM, Zhang X, Hickman IJ, Kolade O, Sacre JW, Huang BE, Simpson P, Li SH, Whitehead JP, Sharman JE, Martin JH, Prins JB (2010) The effect of a high-fat meal on postprandial arterial stiffness in men with obesity and type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4455–4459
60. Piers LS, Walker KZ, Stoney RM, Soares MJ, O’Dea K (2002) The influence of the type of dietary fat on postprandial fat oxidation rates: monounsaturated (olive oil) vs saturated fat (cream). Int J Obes 26:814–821
61. Poppitt SD, Keogh GF, Lithander FE, Wang Y, Mulvey TB, Chan Y, McArdle BH, Cooper GJS (2008) Postprandial response of adiponectin, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and C-reactive protein to a high-fat dietary load. Nutrition 24:322–329
62. Potter M, Hammond JW, Sim K, Green AK, Wilcken B (2001) Ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency: improved sensitivity of testing for protein tolerance in the diagnosis of heterozygotes. J Inherit Metab Dis 24:5–14
63. Ramos-Roman MA, Sweetman L, Valdez MJ, Parks EJ (2012) Postprandial changes in plasma acylcarnitine concentrations as markers of fatty acid flux in overweight and obesity. Metab Clin Exp 61:202–212
64. Rhee EP, Cheng S, Larson MG, Walford GA, Lewis GD, McCabe E, Yang E, Farrell L, Fox CS, O’Donnell CJ, Carr SA, Vasan RS, Florez JC, Clish CB, Wang TJ, Gerszten RE (2011) Lipid profiling identifies a triacylglycerol signature of insulin resistance and improves diabetes prediction in humans. J Clin Invest 121:1402–1411
65. Saxena R, Madhu SV, Shukla R, Prabhu KM, Gambhir JK (2005) Postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and oxidative stress in patients of type 2 diabetes mellitus with macrovascular complications. Clin Chim Acta 359:101–108
66. Scheffer PG, Tushuizen ME, Vermue HPA, Schindhelm RK, Rustemeijer C, Diamant M (2011) Effect of three consecutive meals on the physicochemical properties of HDL and LDL in individuals with the metabolic syndrome and patients with type 2 diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr 65:1242–1249
67. Shaham O, Wei R, Wang TJ, Ricciardi C, Lewis GD, Vasan RS, Carr SA, Thadhani R, Gerszten RE, Mootha VK (2008) Metabolic profiling of the human response to a glucose challenge reveals distinct axes of insulin sensitivity. Mol Syst Biol 4:214
68. Shearer GC, Newman JW (2009) Impact of circulating esterified eicosanoids and other oxylipins on endothelial function. Curr Atheroscler Rep 11:403–410
69. Skurk T, Rubio-Aliaga I, Stamfort A, Hauner H, Daniel H (2011) New metabolic interdependencies revealed by plasma metabolite profiling after two dietary challenges. Metabolomics 7:388–399
70. Soares MJ, Cummings SJ, Mamo JCL, Kenrick M, Piers LS (2004) The acute effects of olive oil v. cream on postprandial thermogenesis and substrate oxidation in postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr 91:245–252
71. Spallarossa P, Garibaldi S, Barisione C, Ghigliotti G, Altieri P, Tracchi I, Fabbi P, Barsotti A, Brunelli C (2008) Postprandial serum induces apoptosis in endothelial cells: role of polymorphonuclear-derived myeloperoxidase and metalloproteinase-9 activity. Atherosclerosis 198:458–467
72. Spégel P, Danielsson APH, Bacos K, Nagorny CLF, Moritz T, Mulder H, Filipsson K (2010) Metabolomic analysis of a human oral glucose tolerance test reveals fatty acids as reliable indicators of regulated metabolism. Metabolomics 6:56–66
73. Strassburg K, Esser D, Vreeken RJ, Hankemeier T, Müller M, van Duynhoven J, van Golde J, van Dijk SJ, Afman LA, Jacobs DM (2014) Postprandial fatty acid specific changes in circulating oxylipins in lean and obese men after high-fat challenge tests. Mol Nutr Food Res 58:591–600
74. Tamburrelli C, Gianfagna F, D’Imperio M, De Curtis A, Rotilio D, Iacoviello L, de Gaetano G, Donati MB, Cerletti C (2012) Postprandial cell inflammatory response to a standardised fatty meal in subjects at different degree of cardiovascular risk. Thromb Haemost 107:530–537
75. Thomsen C, Storm H, Holst JJ, Hermansen K (2003) Differential effects of saturated and monounsaturated fats on postprandial lipemia and glucagon-like peptide 1 responses in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 77:605–611
76. Tiwari SC, Mahajan S, Gupta U (2005) Protein tolerance test. J Indian Acad Clin Med 6:198–200
77. Tulk HMF, Robinson LE (2009) Modifying the n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio of a high-saturated fat challenge does not acutely attenuate postprandial changes in inflammatory markers in men with metabolic syndrome. Metab Clin Exp 58:1709–1716
78. Umpaichitra V, Banerji MA, Castells S (2004) Postprandial hyperlipidemia after a fat loading test in minority adolescents with type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 17:853–864
79. van Dijk SJ, Mensink M, Esser D, Feskens EJM, Müller M, Afman LA (2012) Responses to high-fat challenges varying in fat type in subjects with different metabolic risk phenotypes: a randomized trial. PLoS One 7:e41388
80. van Ommen B, van der Greef J, Ordovas JM, Daniel H (2014) Phenotypic flexibility as key factor in the human nutrition and health relationship. Genes Nutr 9:423
81. van Oostrom AJ, Sijmonsma TP, Verseyden C, Jansen EH, de Koning EJ, Rabelink TJ, Castro Cabezas M (2003a) Postprandial recruitment of neutrophils may contribute to endothelial dysfunction. J Lipid Res 44:576–583
82. Van Oostrom AJHHM, Sijmonsma TP, Rabelink TJ, Van Asbeck BS, Castro Cabezas M (2003b) Postprandial leukocyte increase in healthy subjects. Metab Clin Exp 52:199–202
83. van Oostrom AJ, Rabelink TJ, Verseyden C, Sijmonsma TP, Plokker HW, De Jaegere PP, Cabezas MC (2004) Activation of leukocytes by postprandial lipemia in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis 177:175–182
84. Wang L, Gill R, Pedersen TL, Higgins LJ, Newman JW, Rutledge JC (2009) Triglyceride-rich lipoprotein lipolysis releases neutral and oxidized FFAs that induce endothelial cell inflammation. J Lipid Res 50:204–213
85. Weber-Hamann B, Kopf D, Lederbogen F, Gilles M, Heuser I, Colla M, Deuschle M, Deuschle M (2005) Activity of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal system and oral glucose tolerance in depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 81:200–204
86. WHO (2006) Constitution of the World Health Organization. In: http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf
87. Williams MA, Enquobahrie DA, Zimmer J, Qiu CF, Hevner K, Abetew D, Christianson C, Sheaff C (2012) Maternal plasma advanced glycation end products concentrations in response to oral 50-gram glucose load in mid-pregnancy: a pilot study. Clin Lab 58:1045–1050
88. Wopereis S, Rubingh CM, van Erk MJ, Verheij ER, van Vliet T, Cnubben NH, Smilde AK, van der Greef J, van Ommen B, Hendriks HF (2009) Metabolic profiling of the response to an oral glucose tolerance test detects subtle metabolic changes. PLoS One 4:e4525
89. Wopereis S, Wolvers D, van Erk M, Gribnau M, Kremer B, van Dorsten FA, Boelsma E, Garczarek U, Cnubben N, Frenken L, van der Logt P, Hendriks HF, Albers R, van Duynhoven J, van Ommen B, Jacobs DM (2013) Assessment of inflammatory resilience in healthy subjects using dietary lipid and glucose challenges. BMC Med Genomics 6:44
90. Wu C, Yu Z (2004) Effects on blood glucose, insulin, lipid and proatherosclerotic parameters in stable type 2 diabetic subjects during an oral fat challenge. Lipids Health Dis 3:17
91. Wuesten O, Balz CH, Bretzel RG, Kloer H, Hardt PD (2005) Effects of oral fat load on insulin output and glucose tolerance in healthy control subjects and obese patients without diabetes. Diabetes Care 28:360–365
92. Zhao X, Peter A, Fritsche J, Elcnerova M, Fritsche A, Häring H, Schleicher ED, Xu G, Lehmann R (2009) Changes of the plasma metabolome during an oral glucose tolerance test: is there more than glucose to look at? Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 296:E384–E393
93. Zwirska-Korczala K, Konturek SJ, Sodowski M, Wylezol M, Kuka D, Sowa P, Adamczyk-Sowa M, Kukla M, Berdowska A, Rehfeld JF, Bielanski W, Brzozowski T (2007) Basal and postprandial plasma levels of PYY, ghrelin, cholecystokinin, gastrin and insulin in women with moderate and morbid obesity and metabolic syndrome. J Physiol Pharmacol 58:13–35