Thyroid and polycystic ovary syndrome

European Journal of Endocrinology

Volumn 172, Issue 1, 2015, Pages R9-R21

  Gaberšček, Simona ^a,b   Zaletel, Katja ^a   Schwetz, Verena ^c   Pieber, Thomas ^c   Obermayer Pietsch, Barbara ^c   Lerchbaum, Elisabeth ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTRE LJUBLJANA   (Slovenia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA   (Slovenia)

^c MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ESTROGEN; FIBRILLIN; PROGESTERONE; THYROTROPIN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FBN3 GENE; GENE; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; NONHUMAN; OVARY POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; THYMUS; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; FEMALE; GENETICS; PATHOLOGY; POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME; THYROID GLAND;

FEMALE; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HUMANS; POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; THYROID GLAND;

EID: 84920484988     PISSN: 08044643     EISSN: 1479683X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1530/EJE-14-0295     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Knochenhauer ES, Key TJ, Kahsar-Miller M, Waggoner W., Boots LR & Azziz R. Prevalence of the polycystic ovary syndrome in unselected black and white women of the southeastern United States: a prospective study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1998 83 3078-3082.
2. Diamanti-Kandarakis E., Kouli CR, Bergiele A.T., Filandra FA, Tsianateli TC, Spina GG, Zapanti ED & Bartzis MI. A survey of the polycystic ovary syndrome in the Greek island of Lesbos: hormonal and metabolic profile. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1999 84 4006-4011. (doi:10.1210/jcem.84.11.6148)
3. Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored PCOS consensus workshop group. Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Human Reproduction 2004 19 41-47. (doi:10.1093/humrep/deh098)
4. March WA, Moore VM, Willson K.J., Phillips DI, Norman RJ & Davies MJ. The prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome in a community sample assessed under contrasting diagnostic criteria. Human Reproduction 2010 25 544-551. (doi:10.1093/humrep/dep399)
5. Carmina E & Azziz R. Diagnosis, phenotype, and prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2006 86 (Suppl 1) S7-S8. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2006.03.012)
6. Dunaif A. Insulin resistance and the polycystic ovary syndrome: mechanism and implications for pathogenesis. Endocrine Reviews 1997 18 774-800.
7. Wehr E, Möller R, Horejsi R., Giuliani A, Kopera D, Schweighofer N., Groselj-Strele A, Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Subcutaneous adipose tissue topography and metabolic disturbances in polycystic ovary syndrome. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 2009 121 262-269. (doi:10.1007/s00508-009-1162-2)
8. Dumesic DA & Richards JS. Ontogeny of the ovary in polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2013 100 23-28. (doi:10.1016/j. fertnstert.2013.02.011)
9. Adams J, Polson DW & Franks S. Prevalence of polycystic ovaries in women with anovulation and idiopathic hirsutism. BMJ 1986 293 355-359. (doi:10.1136/bmj.293.6543.355)
10. Hulchiy M, Zhang H, Cline J.M., Lindén Hirschberg A & Sahlin L. Receptors for thyrotropin-releasing hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormones, and thyroid hormones in the macaque uterus: effects of long-term sex hormones treatment. Menopause 2012 19 1253-1259. (doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e318252e450)
11. Krassas GE, Poppe K & Glinoer D. Thyroid function and human reproductive health. Endocrine Reviews 2010 31 702-755. (doi:10. 1210/er.2009-0041)
12. Unuane D, Tournaye H, Velkeniers B & Poppe K. Endocrine disorders and female fertility. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2011 25 861-873. (doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.08.001)
13. Hansen KA, Tho SP, Hanly M, Moretuzzo RW & McDonough PG. Massive ovarian enlargement in primary hypothyroidism. Fertility and Sterility 1997 67 169-171. (doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(97)81876-6)
14. Fitko R, Kucharski J & Szlezyngier B. The importance of thyroid hormone in experimental ovarian cyst formation in gilts. Animal Reproduction Science 1995 39 159-168. (doi:10.1016/0378-4320(95)01382-A)
15. Dittrich R, Beckmann MW, Oppelt P.G., Hoffmann I., Lotz L, Kuwert T & Mueller A. Thyroid hormone receptors and reproduction. Journal of Reproductive Immunology 2011 90 58-66. (doi:10.1016/j.jri.2011.02.009)
16. 4, and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2002 87 489-499. (doi:10.1210/jcem. 87.2.8182)
17. Zaletel K & Gaberšček S. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: from genes to the disease. Current Genomics 2011 12 576-588. (doi:10.2174/138920211798120763)
18. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G & Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Archives of Internal Medicine 2000 160 526-534. (doi:10.1001/archinte.160.4.526)
19. Janssen OE, Mehlmauer N, Hahn S., öffner AH & Gärtner R. High prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. European Journal of Endocrinology 2004 150 363-369. (doi:10.1530/eje.0.1500363)
20. Garelli S, Masiero S, Plebani M., Chen S, Furmaniak J, Armanini D & Betterle C. High prevalence of chronic thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 2013 169 248-251. (doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2013.03.003)
21. Benetti-Pinto C.L., Berini Piccolo VR, Mendes Garmes H & Teatin Juliato CR. Subclinical hypothyroidism in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome: an analysis of clinical, hormonal, and metabolic parameters. Fertility and Sterility 2012 99 588-592. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.10.006)
22. Sinha U, Sinharay K, Saha S., Longkumer TA, Baul SN & Pal SK. Thyroid disorders in polycystic ovarian syndrome subjects: a tertiary hospital based cross-sectional study from Eastern India. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2013 17 304-309. (doi:10.4103/2230-8210.109714)
23. Kachuei M, Jafari F, Kachuei A & Keshteli AH. Prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2012 285 853-856. (doi:10.1007/s00404-011-2040-5)
24. Anaforoglu I, Topbas M & Algun E. Relative associations of polycystic ovarian syndrome vs metabolic syndrome with thyroid function, volume, nodularity and autoimmunity. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation 2011 34 e295-e264. (doi:10.3275/7681)
25. Du D & Xuelian L. The relationship between thyroiditis and polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2013 6 880-889.
26. Jung JH, Hahm JR, Jung T.S., Kim HJ, Kim HS, Kim S, Kim S.K., Lee SM, Kim DR, Choi WJ et al. A 27-year-old woman diagnosed as polycystic ovary syndrome associated with Graves' disease. Internal Medicine 2011 50 2185-2189. (doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.50.5475)
27. Ganie MA, Marwaha RK, Aggarwal R & Singh S. High prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome characteristics in girls with euthyroid chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis: a case-control study. European Journal of Endocrinology 2010 162 1117-1122. (doi:10.1530/EJE-09-1012)
28. Dittmar M, Libich C, Brenzel T & Kahaly GJ. Increased familial clustering of autoimmune thyroid diseases. Hormone and Metabolic Research 2011 43 200-204. (doi:10.1055/s-0031-1271619)
29. Hansen PS, Brix TH, Iachine I, Kyvik KO & Hegedüs L. The relative importance of genetic and environmental effects for the early stages of thyroid autoimmunity: a study of healthy Danish twins. European Journal of Endocrinology 2006 154 29-38. (doi:10.1530/eje.1.02060)
30. Crosignani PG & Nicolosi AE. Polycystic ovarian disease: heritability and heterogeneity. Human Reproduction Update 2001 7 3-7. (doi:10.1093/humupd/7.1.3)
31. Vink JM, Sadrzadeh S, Lambalk CB & Boomsma DI. Heritability of polycystic ovary syndrome in a Dutch twin-family study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2006 91 2100-2104. (doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1494)
32. Kosova G & Urbanek M. Genetics of the polycystic ovary syndrome. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 2013 373 29-38. (doi:10.1016/j.mce.2012.10.009)
33. Petríkova J., Lazúrova I & Yehuda S. Polycystic ovary syndrome and autoimmunity. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2010 21 369-371. (doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2010.06.008)
34. Zaletel K, Krhin B, Gaberšček S & Hojker S. Thyroid autoantibody production is influenced by exon 1 and promoter CTLA-4 polymorphisms in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. International Journal of Immunogenetics 2006 33 87-91. (doi:10.1111/j.1744-313X.2006.00574.x)
35. Stefanić M, Papić S, Suver M, Glavas-Obrovac L & Karner I. Association of vitamin D receptor gene 3'-variants with Hashimoto's thyroiditis in the Croatian population. International Journal of Immunogenetics 2008 35 125-131. (doi:10.1111/j.1744-313X.2008.00748.x)
36. Legro RS, Driscoll D, Strauss JF III, Fox J & Dunaif A. Evidence for a genetic basis for hyperandrogenemia in polycystic ovary syndrome. PNAS 1998 95 14956-14860. (doi:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14956)
37. Ehrmann DA, Kasza K, Azziz R., Legro RS & Ghazzi MN. Effects of race and family history of type 2 diabetes on metabolic status of women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2005 90 66-71. (doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0229)
38. Wehr E, Schweighofer N, Möller R, Giuliani A., Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Association of FTO gene with hyper-androgenemia and metabolic parameters in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Metabolism 2010 59 575-580. (doi:10.1016/j.meta-bol.2009.08.023)
39. Wojciechowski P, Lipowska A, Rys P., Ewens KG, Franks S, Tan S, Lerchbaum E., Vcelak J, Attaoua R, Straczkowski M et al. Impact of FTO genotypes on BMI and weight in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2012 55 2636-2645. (doi:10.1007/s00125-012-2638-6)
40. Mahmoudi T. Genetic variation in the vitamin D receptor and polycystic ovary syndrome risk. Fertility and Sterility 2009 92 1381-1383. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.05.002)
41. Chen ZJ, Zhao H, He L., Shi Y, Qin Y, Shi Y., Li Z, You L, Zhao J., Liu J et al. Genome-wide association study identifies susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome on chromosome 2p16.3, 2p21 and 9q33.3. Nature Genetics 2011 43 55-59. (doi:10.1038/ng.732)
42. Lerchbaum E, Trummer O, Giuliani A., Gruber HJ, Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome on chromosome 2p16.3, 2p21, and 9q33.3 in a cohort of Caucasian women. Hormone and Metabolic Research 2011 43 743-747. (doi:10.1055/s-0031-1286279)
43. Charbonneau NL, Ono RN, Corson G.M., Keene DR & Sakai LY. Fine tuning of growth factor signals depends on fibrillin microfibril networks. Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today 2004 72 37-50. (doi:10.1002/bdrc.20000)
44. Raja-Khan N., Urbanek M, Rodgers RJ & Legro RS. The role of TGF-β in polycystic ovary syndrome. Reproductive Sciences 2014 21 20-31. (doi:10.1177/1933719113485294)
45. Shi Y & Massagué J. Mechanisms of TGF-β signaling from cell membrane to the nucleus. Cell 2003 113 685-700. (doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00432-X)
46. Kaartinen V & Warburton D. Fibrillin controls TGF-β activation. Nature Genetics 2003 33 331-332. (doi:10.1038/ng0303-331)
47. Govinden R & Bhoola KD. Genealogy, expression, and cellular function of transforming growth factor-b. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2003 98 257-265. (doi:10.1016/S0163-7258(03)00035-4)
48. Corson GM, Charbonneau NL, Keene DR & Sakai LY. Differential expression of fibrillin-3 adds to microfibril variety in human and avian, but not rodent, connective tissues. Genomics 2004 83 461-472. (doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2003.08.023)
49. Hatzirodos N, Bayne RA, Irving-Rodgers HF, Hummitzsch K., Sabatier L, Lee S, Bonner W., Gibson MA, Rainey WE, Carr BR et al. Linkage of regulators of TGF-β activity in the fetal ovary to polycystic ovary syndrome. FASEB Journal 2011 25 2256-2265. (doi:10.1096/fj.11-181099)
50. Raja-Khan N., Kunselman AR, Demers L.M., Ewens KG, Spielman RS & Legro RS. A variant in the fibrillin-3 gene is associated with TFG-b and inhibin Blevelsinwomen with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2010 94 2916-2919. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.05.047)
51. Akinci B, Comlekci A, Yener S., Bayraktar F, Demir T, Ali Ozcan M, Yuksel F & Yesil S. Hashimoto's thyroiditis, but not treatment of hypothyroidism, is associated with altered TGF-β1 levels. Archives of Medical Research 2008 39 397-401. (doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.12.001)
52. - thymocytes. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1999 189 279-288. (doi:10.1084/jem.189.2.279)
53. Li Q, Yang G, Wang Y., Zhang X, Sang Q, Wang H., Zhao X, Xing Q, He L & Wang L. Common genetic variation in the 3'-untranslated region of gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor regulates gene expression in cella and is associated with thyroid function, insulin secretion as well as insulin sensitivity in polycystic ovary syndrome patients. Human Genetics 2011 129 553-561. (doi:10.1007/s00439-011-0954-4)
54. 4 in the sera of polycystic ovary syndrome patients. Molecular Biology Reports 2013 40 3315-3320. (doi:10.1007/s11033-012-2406-1)
55. Weetman AP. Immunity, thyroid function and pregnancy: molecular mechanisms. Nature Reviews. Endocrinology 2010 6 311-318. (doi:10.1038/nrendo.2010.46)
56. Sakaguchi S, Yamaguchi T, Nomura T & Ono M. Regulatory T cells and immune tolerance. Cell 2008 133 775-787. (doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008. 05.009)
57. Kong YM, Morris GP, Brown N.K., Yan Y., Flynn JC & David CS. Autoimmune thyroiditis: a model uniquely suited to probe regulatory T cell function. Journal of Autoimmunity 2009 33 239-246. (doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2009.09.004)
58. + regulatory T cells by TGF-β induction of transcription factor Foxp3. Journal of Experimental Medicine 2003 198 1875-1886. (doi:10.1084/jem.20030152)
59. Chapman JC, Kunaporn S, Shah S., Kaiki-Astara A & Michael SD. The differential effect of injecting estradiol-17b, testosterone, and hydrocortisone during the immune adaptive period on the fertility offemale mice. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 2001 46 288-297. (doi:10.1034/j.1600-0897.2001.d01-15.x)
60. Chapman JC, Min SH, Freeh SM & Michael SD. The estrogen-injected female mouse: new insight into the etiology of PCOS. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 2009 747-57. (doi:10.1186/1477-7827-7-47)
61. Palmer JR, Hatch EE, Rao R.S., Kaufman RH, Herbst AL, Noller KL, Titus-Ernstoff L & Hoover RN. Infertility among women exposed prenatally to diethylstilbestrol. American Journal of Epidemiology 2001 154 316-321. (doi:10.1093/aje/154.4.316)
62. West LJ. Defining critical windows in the development of the human immune system. Human & Experimental Toxicology 2002 21 499-505. (doi:10.1191/0960327102ht288oa)
63. Noller KL, Blair PB, O'Brien PC, Melton LJ III, Offord JR, Kaufman RH & Cotton T. Increased occurrence of autoimmune disease among women exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. Fertility and Sterility 1988 49 1080-1082.
64. Chapman JC, Min S, Kunaporn S., Tung K, Shah S & Michael SD. The administration of cortisone to female B6A mice during their immune adaptive period causes anovulation and the formation of ovarian cysts. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 2002 48 184-189. (doi:10.1034/j.1600-0897.2002.01081.x)
65. Pludowski P, Holick MF, Pilz S, Wagner C.L., Hollis BW, Grant WB, Shoenfeld Y, Lerchbaum E., Llewellyn DJ, Kienreisch K et al. Vitamin D effects on musculoskeletal health, immunity, autoimmunity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, fertility, pregnancy, dementia and mortality - a review of recent evidence. Autoimmunity Reviews 2013 12 976-989. (doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2013.02.004)
66. Petríkova J & Lazurova I. Ovarian failure and polycystic ovary syndrome. Autoimmunity Reviews 2012 11 A471-A478. (doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2011.11.010)
67. Szodoray P, Nakken B, Gaal J., Jonsson R, Szegedi A, Zold E., Szegedi G, Brun JG, Gesztelyi R, Zeher M et al. The complex role of vitamin D in autoimmune diseases. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 2008 68 261-269. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.2008.02127.x)
68. Holick MF. Vitamin D: a millennium perspective. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 2003 88 296-307. (doi:10.1002/jcb.10338)
69. Lopez ER, Zwermann O, Segni M., Meyer G, Reincke M, Seissler J., Herwig J, Usadel KH & Badenhoop K. A promoter polymorphism of the CYP27B1 gene is associated with Addison's disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease and type 1 diabetes mellitus in Germans. European Journal of Endocrinology 2004 151193-197. (doi:10.1530/eje. 0.1510193)
70. Wehr E, Trummer O, Giuliani A., Gruber HJ, Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Vitamin D-associated polymorphisms are related to insulin resistance and vitamin D deficiency in polycystic ovary syndrome. European Journal of Endocrinology 2011 164 741-749. (doi:10.1530/EJE-11-0134)
71. Trummer O, Schwetz V, Walter-Finell D, Lerchbaum E., Renner W, Gugatschka M, Dobnig H., Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Allelic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency, bone mineral density, and bone fractures. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2012 97 1234-1240. (doi:10.1210/jc.2011-3088)
72. Lin MW, Tsai SJ, Chou P.Y., Huang MF, Sun HS & Wu MH. Vitamin D receptor 1a promotor K1521 G/C and K1012 A/G polymorphisms in polycystic ovary syndrome. Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 2012 51 565-571. (doi:10.1016/j.tjog.2012.09.011)
73. Kivity S, Agmon-Levin N, Zisappl M., Shapira Y, Nagy EV, Dankó K, Szekanecz Z, Langevitz P & Shoenfeld Y. Vitamin D and autoimmune thyroid diseases. Cellular & Molecular Immunology 2011 8 243-247. (doi:10.1038/cmi.2010.73)
74. Toubi E & Shoenfeld Y. The role of vitamin D in regulating immune responses. Israel Medical Association Journal 2010 12 174-175.
75. Prietl B, Pilz S, Wolf M., Tomaschitz A, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Graninger W & Pieber TR. Vitamin D supplementation and regulatory T cells in apparently healthy subjects: vitamin D treatment for autoimmune diseases? Israel Medical Association Journal 2010 12 136-139.
76. + Tregs in healthy adults without negatively affecting the frequency of other immune cells. European Journal of Nutrition 2014 53 751-759. (doi:10.1007/s00394-013-0579-6)
77. Wehr E, Pilz S, Schweighofer N., Giuliani A, Kopera D, Pieber TR & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Association of hypovitaminosis D with metabolic disturbance in polycystic ovary syndrome. European Journal of Endocrinology 2009 161 575-582. (doi:10.1530/EJE-09-0432)
78. Lerchbaum E & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Vitamin D and fertility: a systematic review. European Journal of Endocrinology 2012 166 765-778. (doi:10.1530/EJE-11-0984)
79. Quintero OL, Amador-Patarroyo MJ, Montoya-Ortiz G, Rojas-Villarraga A & Anaya JM. Autoimmune disease and gender: plausible mechanism for the female predominance of autoimmunity. Journal of Autoimmunity 2011 38 J109-J119. (doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2011.10.003)
80. Rovenský J. Rheumatic diseases and Klinefelter's syndrome. Autoimmu-nity Reviews 2006 6 33-36. (doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2006.03.005)
81. Mariotti S, Prinzis A, Ghiani M., Cambuli VM, Pilia S, Marras V, Carta D & Loche S. Puberty is associated with a marked increase of the female sex predominance in chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. Hormone Research 2009 72 52-56. (doi:10.1159/000224341)
82. Zorgdrager A & De Keyser J. Menstrually related worsening of symptoms in multiple sclerosis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 1997 149 95-97. (doi:10.1016/S0022-510X(97)05396-3)
83. Strieder TG, Prummel MF, Tijssen J.G., Endert E & Wiersinga WM. Risk factors for and prevalence of thyroid disorders in a cross-sectional study among healthy female relatives of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. Clinical Endocrinology 2003 59 396-401. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-2265.2003.01862.x)
84. Pennell LM, Galligan CL & Fish EN. Sex affects immunity. Journal of Autoimmunity 2012 38 J282-J291. (doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2011.11.013)
85. Angstwurm MW, Gärtner R & Ziegler-Heitbrock HW. Cyclic plasma IL-6 levels during normal menstrual cycle. Cytokine 1997 9 370-374. (doi:10.1006/cyto.1996.0178)
86. + regulatory T cells during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle: implications for human reproduction. Journal of Immunology 2007 178 2572-2578. (doi:10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2572)
87. H2 phenomenon? Immunology Today 1993 14 353-356. (doi:10.1016/0167-5699(93)90235-D)
88. Marzi M, Vigano A, Trabattoni D., Trabattoni D, Villa ML, Salvaggio A, Clerici E & Clerici M. Characterization of type 1 and type 2 cytokine production profile in physiologic and pathologic human pregnancy. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 1996 106 127-133. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.1996.d01-809.x)
89. Gaberšček S & Zaletel K. Thyroid physiology and autoimmunity in pregnancy and after delivery. Expert Review of Clinical Immunology 2011 7 697-707. (doi:10.1586/eci.11.42)
90. Jørgensen KT, Pedersen BV, Nielsen NM, Jacobsen F & Frisch M. Childbirths and risk of female predominant and other autoimmune diseases in a population-based Danish cohort. Journal of Autoimmunity 2012 38 J81-J87. (doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2011.06.004)
91. Friedrich N, Schwarz S, Thonack J., John U, Wallaschofski H & Völzke H. Association between parity and autoimmune thyroiditis in a general female population. Autoimmunity 2008 41 174-180. (doi:10.1080/08916930701777629)
92. Paavonen T. Hormonal regulation of immune responses. Annals of Medicine 1994 26 255-258. (doi:10.3109/07853899409147900)
93. Ahmed SA, Hissong BD, Verthelyi D, Dooner K., Becker K & Karpozuglu-Sahin E. Gender and risk of autoimmune diseases: possible role of estrogenic compounds. Environmental Health Perspectives 1999 107 (Suppl 5) 681-686. (doi:10.1289/ehp.99107s5681)
94. Törnwall J., Carey AB, Fox RI & Fox HS. Estrogen in autoimmunity: expression of estrogen receptors in thymic and autoimmune T cells. Journal of Gender-Specific Medicine 1999 2 33-40.
95. Seli E & Arici A. Sex steroids and the immune system. Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America 2002 22 407-433. (doi:10.1016/S0889-8561(02)00017-6)
96. Hughes GC. Progesterone and autoimmune disease. Autoimmunity Reviews 2012 11 A502-A514. (doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2011.12.003)
97. Cooper DS & Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet 2012 379 1142-1154. (doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60276-6)
98. Maratou E, Hadjidakis DJ, Kollias A, Tsegka K., Peppa M, Alevizaki M, Mitrou P., Lambadiari V, Boutati E, Nikzas D et al. Studies of insulin resistance in patients with clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism. European Journal of Endocrinology 2009 160 786-790. (doi:10.1530/EJE-08-0797)
99. Åsvold BO, Vatten LJ, Nilsen TI & Bjøro T. The association between TSH within reference range and serum lipid concentrations in a population-based study. The HUNT study. European Journal of Endocrinology 2007 156 181-186. (doi:10.1530/eje.1.02333)
100. Park HT, Cho GJ, Ahn K.H., Shin JH, Hong SC, Kim T, Hur J.Y., Kim YT, Lee KW & Kim SH. Thyroid stimulating hormone is associated with metabolic syndrome in euthyroid postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2009 62 301-305. (doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2009.01.007)
101. Knudsen N, Laurberg P, Rasmussen L.B., Bülow I, Perrild H., Ovesen L & Jørgensen T. Small differences in thyroid function may be important for body mass index and the occurrence of obesity in the population. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2005 90 4019-4024. (doi:10.1210/jc.2004-2225)
102. Cobin RH. Cardiovascular and metabolic risks associated with PCOS. Internal and Emergency Medicine 2013 8 (Suppl 1) S61-S64. (doi:10.1007/s11739-013-0924-z)
103. Margolin E, Zhornitzki T, Kopernik G., Kogan S, Schattner A & Knobler H. Polycystic ovary syndrome in post-menopausal women - marker of the metabolic syndrome. Maturitas 2005 50 331-336. (doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2004.09.005)
104. Strowitzki T, Capp E & von Eye Corleta H. The degree of cycle irregularity correlates with the grade of endocrine and metabolic disorders in PCOS patients. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 2010 149 178-181. (doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2009.12.024)
105. Ehrmann DA, Liljenquist DR, Kasza K, Azziz R., Legro RS & Ghazzi MN. Prevalence and predictors of the metabolic syndrome in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2006 91 48-53. (doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1329)
106. Lerchbaum E, Schwetz V, Giuliani A & Obermayer-Pietsch B. Hypertriglyceridemic waist is associated with impaired glucose tolerance in polycystic ovary syndrome. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases 2013 23 e15-e16. (doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2012.11.004)
107. Hudecova M, Holte J, Olovsson M., Larsson A, Berne C & Sundstrom-Poromaa I. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in women with a previous diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome: long-term follow-up. Fertility and Sterility 2011 96 1271-1274. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.08.006)
108. Mueller A, Schöfl C, Dittrich R., Cupisti S, Oppelt PG, Schild R.L., Beckmann MW & Häberle L. Thyroid-stimulating hormone is associated with insulin resistance independently of body mass index and age in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Human Reproduction 2009 24 2924-2930. (doi:10.1093/humrep/dep285)
109. Celik C, Abali R, Tasdemir N., Guzel S, Yuksel A, Aksu E & Yilmaz M. Is subclinical hypothyroidism contributing dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in women with polycystic ovary syndrome? Gynecological Endocrinology 2012 28 615-618. (doi:10.3109/09513590.2011.650765)
110. Ganie MA, Laway BA, Wani T.A., Zargar MA, Nisar S, Ahamed F, Khurana ML & Ahmed S. Association of subclinical hypothyroidism and phenotype, insulin resistance, and lipid parameters in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2011 95 2039-2043. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.01.149)
111. Taghavi SM, Rokni H & Fatemi S. Metformin decreases thyrotropin in overweight women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and hypo-thyroidism. Diabetes & Vascular Disease Research 2011 8 47-48. (doi:10.1177/1479164110391917)
112. Poppe K, Velkeniers B & Glinoer D. Thyroid disease and female reproduction. Clinical Endocrinology 2007 66 309-321. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2007.02752.x)
113. Stagnaro-Green A & Glinoer D. Thyroid autoimmunity and the risk of miscarriage. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2004 18 167-181. (doi:10.1016/j.beem.2004.03.007)
114. Prummel MF & Wiersinga WM. Thyroid autoimmunity and miscarriage. European Journal of Endocrinology 2004 150 751-755. (doi:10.1530/eje.0.1500751)
115. Yan J, Sripada S, Saravelos S.H., Chen ZJ, Egner W & Li TC. Thyroid peroxidase antibody in women with unexplained recurrent miscarriage: prevalence, prognostic value, and response to empirical thyroxine therapy. Fertility and Sterility 2012 98 378-382. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.04.025)
116. Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T., Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D & Hassan H. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2006 91 2587-2591. (doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1603)
117. Poppe K, Glinoer D, Tournaye H., Devroey P, van Steirteghem A, Kaufman L & Velkeniers B. Assisted reproduction and thyroid autoimmunity: an unfortunate combination? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2003 88 4149-4152. (doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030268)
118. Reh A, Chaudhry S, Mendelsohn F., Im S, Rolnitzky L, Amarosa A., Levitz M, Srinivasa S, Krey L., Berkeley AS et al. Effect of autoimmune thyroid disease in older euthyroid infertile woman during the first 35 days of an IVF cycle. Fertility and Sterility 2001 95 1178-1181. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.09.053)
119. Muller AF, Verhoeff A, Mantel MJ & Berghout A. Thyroid auto-immunity and abortion: a prospective study in women undergoing in vitro fertilization. Fertility and Sterility 1999 71 30-34. (doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00394-X)
120. Thangaratinam S, Tan A, Knox E., Kilby MD, Franklyn J & Coomarasamy A. Association between thyroid autoantibodies and miscarriage and preterm birth: meta-analysis of evidence. BMJ 2011 342 d2616. (doi:10.1136/bmj.d2616)
121. Matalon ST, Blank M, Ornoy A & Shoenfeld Y. The association between anti-thyroid antibodies and pregnancy loss. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 2001 45 72-77. (doi:10.1111/j.8755-8920.2001.450202.x)
122. Qin JZ, Pang LH, Li M.J., Fan XJ, Huang RD & Chen HY. Obstetric complications in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive of Biology and Endocrinology 2013 11 56-70. (doi:10.1186/1477-7827-11-56)
123. Ott J, Aust S, Kurz C., Nouri K, Wirth S, Huber JC & Mayerhofer K. Elevated antithyroid peroxidase antibodies indicating Hashimoto's thyroiditis are associated with the treatment response in infertile women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertility and Sterility 2010 94 2895-2897. (doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.05.063)