Link between chronic bacterial inflammation and Alzheimer disease

CNS and Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets

Volumn 13, Issue 7, 2014, Pages 1140-1147

  Bibi, Fehmida ^a   Yasir, Muhammad ^a   Sohrab, Sayed S ^a   Azhar, Esam I ^a   Al Qahtani, Mohammed H ^a   Abuzenadah, Adel M ^a   Kamal, Mohammad A ^a   Naseer, Muhammad I ^a  

^a KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid beta; Astrocytes; Bacteria; Inflammation; Spirochetes; Tau

Indexed keywords

ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCT RECEPTOR; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; AMYLOID PRECURSOR PROTEIN; APOLIPOPROTEIN E; BETA SECRETASE 1; CHEMOKINE; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CCR3; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CCR5; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR2; CYSTATIN C; CYTOKINE; ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; FREE RADICAL; INSULINASE; INTERLEUKIN 1ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN 6; MEMBRANE METALLOENDOPEPTIDASE; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; NITRIC OXIDE; NUCLEOTIDE BINDING OLIGOMERIZATION DOMAIN LIKE RECEPTOR; PRESENILIN 1; PRESENILIN 2; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TAU PROTEIN; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTOR;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; BORRELIA BURGDORFERI; CELL ACTIVATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHLAMYDOPHILA PNEUMONIAE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DISEASE COURSE; DOWN REGULATION; GENE MUTATION; GLIOSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INFLAMMATION; LIFESTYLE AND RELATED PHENOMENA; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; NONHUMAN; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; ANIMAL; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BRAIN; CHRONIC DISEASE; IMMUNOMODULATION; MICROBIOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BRAIN; CHRONIC DISEASE; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; NEUROIMMUNOMODULATION;

EID: 84911393510     PISSN: 18715273     EISSN: 19963181     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1871527313666140917115741     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Bienias JL, Bennett DA, Evans DA. Alzheimer disease in the US population: prevalence estimates using the 2000 census. Arch Neurol 2003; 60(8): 1119-22.
2. Wimo A, Jonsson L, Winblad B. An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and direct costs of dementia in 2003. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2006; 21(3): 175-81.
3. Alzheimer A. Uber eine eigenartige Erkangkung der Hirnrinde (An unusual illness of the cerebral cortex). Allgemeine Zeitschr Psychisch-Gerichtliche Medizin 1907; Vol. 64.
4. Watts JC, Giles K, Grillo SK, et al. Bioluminescence imaging of Abeta deposition in bigenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108(6): 2528-33.
5. Wang HY, Bakshi K, Frankfurt M, et al. Reducing amyloid-related Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis by a small molecule targeting filamin A. J Neurosci 2012; 32(29): 9773-84.
6. Langford D, Masliah E. The emerging role of infectious pathogens in neurodegenerative diseases. Exp Neurol 2003; 184(2): 553-5.
7. Urosevic N, Martins RN. Infection and Alzheimer's disease: the APOE epsilon4 connection and lipid metabolism. J Alzheimers Dis 2008; 13(4): 421-35.
8. Miklossy J. Chronic inflammation and amyloidogenesis in Alzheimer's disease - role of Spirochetes. J Alzheimers Dis 2008; 13(4): 381-91.
9. Miklossy J. Alzheimer's disease - a neurospirochetosis. Analysis of the evidence following Koch's and Hill's criteria. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8: 90.
10. MacDonald AB, Miranda JM. Concurrent neocortical borreliosis and Alzheimer's disease. Hum Pathol 1987; 18(7): 759-61.
11. Howard J, Pilkington GJ. Fibronectin staining detects microorganisms in aged and Alzheimer's disease brain. Neuroreport 1992; 3(7): 615-8.
12. Miklossy J, Kasas S, Janzer RC, Ardizzoni F, Van der Loos H. Further ultrastructural evidence that spirochaetes may play a role in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroreport 1994; 5(10): 1201-4.
13. Miklossy J. Chronic Inflammation and Amyloidogenesis in Alzheimer’s Disease: Putative Role of Bacterial Peptidoglycan, a Potent Inflammatory and Amyloidogenic Factor. Alzheimers Dis Rev 1998; 3: 45-51.
14. Zotova E, Nicoll JA, Kalaria R, Holmes C, Boche D. Inflammation in Alzheimer's disease: relevance to pathogenesis and therapy. Alzheimers Res Ther 2010; 2(1): 1.
15. Miklossy J. Alzheimer's disease – A spirochetosis? Neuroreport 1993; 9(4): 841-8.
16. Lehman TJ, Allen JB, Plotz PH, Wilder RL. Polyarthritis in rats following the systemic injection of Lactobacillus casei cell walls in aqueous suspension. Arthr Rheum 1983; 26(10): 1259-65.
17. Fox A. Role of bacterial debris in inflammatory diseases of the joint and eye. Apmis 1990; 98(11): 957-68.
18. Marshall BJ, Warren JR. Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach of patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration. Lancet 1984; 1(8390): 1311-5.
19. Kamer AR, Dasanayake AP, Craig RG, et al. Alzheimer's disease and peripheral infections: the possible contribution from periodontal infections, model and hypothesis. J Alzheimers Dis 2008; 13(4): 437-49.
20. Nicolson GL. Chronic bacterial and viral infections in neurodegenerative and neurobehavioral diseases. Lab Med 2008; 39(5): 291-9.
21. Balin BJ, Little CS, Hammond CJ, et al. Chlamydophila pneumoniae and the etiology of late-onset Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2008; 13(4): 371-80.
22. Honjo K, van Reekum R, Verhoeff NP. Alzheimer's disease and infection: do infectious agents contribute to progression of Alzheimer's disease? Alzheimers Dement 2009; 5(4): 348-360.
23. Ellen RP, Galimanas VB. Spirochetes at the forefront of periodontal infections. Periodontology 2000; 38: 13-32.
24. Miklossy J. Emerging roles of pathogens in Alzheimer disease. Expert Rev Mol Med 2011; 20(13): 30.
25. Shima K, Kuhlenbaumer G, Rupp J. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer's disease: a connection to remember? Med Microbiol Immunol 2010; 199(4): 283-9.
26. Seymour GJ, Ford PJ, Cullinan MP, Leishman S, Yamazaki K. Relationship between periodontal infections and systemic disease. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007; 4: 3-10.
27. Sparks Stein P, Steffen MJ, Smith C, et al. Serum antibodies to periodontal pathogens are a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2012; 8(3): 196-203.
28. Poole S, Singhrao SK, Kesavalu L, Curtis MA, Crean S. Determining the presence of periodontopathic virulence factors in short-term postmortem Alzheimer's disease brain tissue. J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 36(4): 665-77.
29. Dong S, Duan Y, Hu Y, Zhao Z. Advances in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: a re-evaluation of amyloid cascade hypothesis. Transl Neurodegener 2012; 1(1): 2047-9158.
30. Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, et al. Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1991; 349(6311): 704-6.
31. Hardy J, Allsop D. Amyloid deposition as the central event in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1991; 12(10): 383-8.
32. Hardy JA, Higgins GA. Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science 1992; 256(5054): 184-5.
33. Glenner GG, Wong CW, Quaranta V, Eanes ED. The amyloid deposits in Alzheimer's disease: their nature and pathogenesis. Appl Pathol 1984; 2(6): 357-69.
34. Cui Y, Huang M, He Y, Zhang S, Luo Y. Genetic ablation of apolipoprotein A-IV accelerates Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis in a mouse model. Am J Pathol 2011; 178(3): 1298-308.
35. Cook DG, Leverenz JB, McMillan PJ, et al. Reduced hippocampal insulin-degrading enzyme in late-onset Alzheimer's disease is associated with the apolipoprotein E-epsilon4 allele. Am J Pathol 2003; 162(1): 313-9.
36. El-Amouri SS, Zhu H, Yu J, et al. Neprilysin: an enzyme candidate to slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 2008; 172(5): 1342-54.
37. Hellstrom-Lindahl E, Ravid R, Nordberg A. Age-dependent decline of neprilysin in Alzheimer's disease and normal brain: inverse correlation with A beta levels. Neurobiol Aging 2008; 29(2): 210-21.
38. Hersh LB, Rodgers DW. Neprilysin and amyloid beta peptide degradation. Curr Alzheimer Res 2008; 5(2): 225-31.
39. Miners JS, Van Helmond Z, Chalmers K, et al. Decreased expression and activity of neprilysin in Alzheimer disease are associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65(10): 1012-21.
40. Yasojima K, Akiyama H, McGeer EG, McGeer PL. Reduced neprilysin in high plaque areas of Alzheimer brain: a possible relationship to deficient degradation of beta-amyloid peptide. Neurosci Lett 2001; 297(2): 97-100.
41. Miners JS, Baig S, Palmer J, et al. Abeta-degrading enzymes in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Pathol 2008; 18(2): 240-52.
42. Mueller JC, Riemenschneider M, Schoepfer-Wendels A, et al. Weak independent association signals between IDE polymorphisms, Alzheimer's disease and cognitive measures. Neurobiol Aging 2007; 28(5): 727-34.
43. Vepsalainen S, Parkinson M, Helisalmi S, et al. Insulin-degrading enzyme is genetically associated with Alzheimer's disease in the Finnish population. J Med Genet 2007; 44(9): 606-8.
44. Farris W, Mansourian S, Chang Y, et al. Insulin-degrading enzyme regulates the levels of insulin, amyloid beta-protein, and the betaamyloid precursor protein intracellular domain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100(7): 4162-7.
45. Orsucci D, Mancuso M, Ienco EC, et al. Vascular factors and mitochondrial dysfunction: a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Curr Neurovasc Res 2013; 10(1): 76-80.
46. Williamson J, Goldman J, Marder KS. Genetic aspects of Alzheimer disease. Neurologist 2009; 15(2): 80-6.
47. Bekris LM, Yu CE, Bird TD, Tsuang DW. Genetics of Alzheimer disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2010; 23(4): 213-27.
48. Corder EH, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, et al. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science 1993; 261(5123): 921-23.
49. Poirier J, Davignon J, Bouthillier D, et al. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1993; 342(8873): 697-9.
50. Yates D, McLoughlin DM. The molecular pathology of Alzheimer’s disease. Psychiatry 2008; 7(1): 1-5.
51. Rocchi A, Orsucci D, Tognoni G, Ceravolo R, Siciliano G. The role of vascular factors in late-onset sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Genetic and molecular aspects. Curr Alzheimer Res 2009; 6(3): 224-37.
52. Maccioni RB, Munoz JP, Barbeito L. The molecular bases of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Arch Med Res 2001; 32(5): 367-81.
53. Kosik KS. The molecular and cellular biology of tau. Brain Pathol 1993; 3(1): 39-43.
54. Mandelkow EM, Biernat J, Drewes G, et al. Tau domains, phosphorylation, and interactions with microtubules. Neurobiol Aging 1995; 16(3): 355-62.
55. Kolarova M, Garcia-Sierra F, Bartos A, Ricny J, Ripova D. Structure and pathology of tau protein in Alzheimer disease. Intl J Alzheimer's Dis 2012; 2012: 731526.
56. Nunomura A, Castellani RJ, Zhu X, et al. Involvement of oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65(7): 631-41.
57. Bancher C, Brunner C, Lassmann H, et al. Accumulation of abnormally phosphorylated tau precedes the formation of neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 1989; 477(1-2): 90-9.
58. Games D, Adams D, Alessandrini R, et al. Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F betaamyloid precursor protein. Nature 1995; 373(6514): 523-7.
59. Tiraboschi P, Hansen LA, Thal LJ, Corey-Bloom J. The importance of neuritic plaques and tangles to the development and evolution of AD. Neurology 2004; 62(11): 1984-9.
60. Cameron B, Landreth GE. Inflammation, microglia, and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37(3): 503-9.
61. Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, Marchetto MC, Gage FH. Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell 2010; 140(6): 918-34.
62. Rubio-Perez JM, Morillas-Ruiz JM. A review: inflammatory process in Alzheimer's disease, role of cytokines. Scientific World J 2012; 2012: 756357.
63. Tansey MG, McCoy MK, Frank-Cannon TC. Neuroinflammatory mechanisms in Parkinson's disease: potential environmental triggers, pathways, and targets for early therapeutic intervention. Exp Neurol 2007; 208(1): 1-25.
64. Lossinsky AS, Shivers RR. Structural pathways for macromolecular and cellular transport across the blood-brain barrier during inflammatory conditions. Histol Histopathol 2004; 19(2): 535-64.
65. Das S, Basu A. Inflammation: a new candidate in modulating adult neurogenesis. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86(6): 1199-208.
66. Gehrmann J, Matsumoto Y, Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: intrinsic immuneffector cell of the brain. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1995; 20(3): 269-87.
67. Streit WJ. Microglia as neuroprotective, immunocompetent cells of the CNS. Glia 2002; 40(2): 133-9.
68. Watts A, Crimmins EM, Gatz M. Inflammation as a potential mediator for the association between periodontal disease and Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2008; 4(5): 865-76.
69. Teeling JL, Perry VH. Systemic infection and inflammation in acute CNS injury and chronic neurodegeneration: underlying mechanisms. Neuroscience 2009; 158(3): 1062-73.
70. Mrak RE, Griffinbc WS. The role of activated astrocytes and of the neurotrophic cytokine S100B in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2001; 22(6): 915-22.
71. Saijo K, Winner B, Carson CT, et al. A Nurr1/CoREST pathway in microglia and astrocytes protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammation-induced death. Cell 2009; 137(1): 47-59.
72. Simard AR, Soulet D, Gowing G, Julien JP, Rivest S. Bone marrowderived microglia play a critical role in restricting senile plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2006; 49(4): 489-502.
73. Wyss-Coray T, Loike JD, Brionne TC, et al. Adult mouse astrocytes degrade amyloid-beta in vitro and in situ. Nat Med 2003; 9(4): 453-7.
74. Cartier L, Hartley O, Dubois-Dauphin M, Krause KH. Chemokine receptors in the central nervous system: role in brain inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 2005; 48(1): 16-42.
75. Kitazawa M, Yamasaki TR, LaFerla FM. Microglia as a potential bridge between the amyloid beta-peptide and tau. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004; 1035; 85-103.
76. Reed-Geaghan EG, Savage JC, Hise AG, Landreth GE. CD14 and toll-like receptors 2 and 4 are required for fibrillar A{beta}-stimulated microglial activation. J Neurosci 2009; 29(38): 11982-92.
77. Frank S, Copanaki E, Burbach GJ, Muller UC, Deller T. Differential regulation of toll-like receptor mRNAs in amyloid plaque-associated brain tissue of aged APP23 transgenic mice. Neurosci Lett 2009; 453(1): 41-4.
78. Janssens S, Beyaert R. Role of Toll-like receptors in pathogen recognition. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16(4): 637-46.
79. Landreth GE, Reed-Geaghan EG. Toll-like receptors in Alzheimer's disease. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2009; 336: 137-53.
80. Fassbender K, Walter S, Kuhl S, et al. The LPS receptor (CD14) links innate immunity with Alzheimer's disease. FASEB J 2004; 18(1): 203-5.
81. Liu Y, Walter S, Stagi M, et al. LPS receptor (CD14): a receptor for phagocytosis of Alzheimer's amyloid peptide. Brain 2005; 128(Pt 8): 1778-89.
82. Walter S, Letiembre M, Liu Y, et al. Role of the toll-like receptor 4 in neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Physiol Biochem 2007; 20(6): 947-56.
83. Bamberger ME, Harris ME, McDonald DR, Husemann J, Landreth GE. A cell surface receptor complex for fibrillar beta-amyloid mediates microglial activation. J Neurosci 2003; 23(7): 2665-74.
84. Minoretti P, Gazzaruso C, Vito CD, et al. Effect of the functional toll-like receptor 4 Asp299Gly polymorphism on susceptibility to late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2006; 391(3): 147-9.
85. Yan SD, Chen X, Fu J, et al. RAGE and amyloid-beta peptide neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1996; 382(6593): 685-91.
86. Halle A, Hornung V, Petzold GC, et al. The NALP3 inflammasome is involved in the innate immune response to amyloid-beta. Nat Immunol 2008; 9(8): 857-65.
87. Takeuchi O, Akira S. Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation. Cell 2010; 140(6): 805-20.
88. Heneka MT, Kummer MP, Stutz A, et al. NLRP3 is activated in Alzheimer's disease and contributes to pathology in APP/PS1 mice. Nature 2012; 493(7434): 674-8.
89. Lee YJ, Han SB, Nam SY, Oh KW, Hong JT. Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Arch Pharm Res 2010; 33(10): 1539-56.
90. Eddleston M, Mucke L. Molecular profile of reactive astrocytes-implications for their role in neurologic disease. Neuroscience 1993; 54(1): 15-36.
91. Dickson DW. The pathogenesis of senile plaques. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997; 56(4): 321-39.
92. Johnstone M, Gearing AJ, Miller KM. A central role for astrocytes in the inflammatory response to beta-amyloid; chemokines, cytokines and reactive oxygen species are produced. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 93(1-2): 182-93.
93. Kurt MA, Davies DC, Kidd M. Beta-Amyloid immunoreactivity in astrocytes in Alzheimer's disease brain biopsies: an electron microscope study. Exp Neurol 1999; 158(1): 221-8.
94. Nagele RG, D'Andrea MR, Lee H, Venkataraman V, Wang HY. Astrocytes accumulate A beta 42 and give rise to astrocytic amyloid plaques in Alzheimer disease brains. Brain Res 2003; 971: 197-209.
95. Smits HA, Rijsmus A, van Loon JH, et al. Amyloid-beta-induced chemokine production in primary human macrophages and astrocytes. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 127(1-2): 160-8.
96. Mori T, Koyama N, Arendash GW, et al. Overexpression of human S100B exacerbates cerebral amyloidosis and gliosis in the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Glia 2009; 58(3): 300-14.
97. Simic G, Lucassen PJ, Krsnik Z, et al. nNOS expression in reactive astrocytes correlates with increased cell death related DNA damage in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex in Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 2000; 165(1): 12-26.
98. Koistinaho M, Lin S, Wu X, et al. Apolipoprotein E promotes astrocyte colocalization and degradation of deposited amyloid-beta peptides. Nat Med 2004; 10(7): 719-26.
99. Mattson MP. Infectious agents and age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Ageing Res Rev 2004; 3(1): 105-20.
100. Nicolson GL Haier J. Role of chronic bacterial and viral infections in neurodegenerative, neurobehavioral, psychiatric, autoimmune and fatiguing illnesses. Br J Med Practit 2009; 2(4): 20-8.
101. Ohanian SH, Schwab JH. Persistence of group a streptococcal cell walls related to chronic inflammation of rabbit dermal connective tissue. J Exp Med 1967; 125(6): 1137-48.
102. Miklossy J, Khalili K, Gern L, et al. Borrelia burgdorferi persists in the brain in chronic lyme neuroborreliosis and may be associated with Alzheimer disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2004; 6(6): 639-49.
103. Miklossy J, Kis A, Radenovic A, et al. Beta-amyloid deposition and Alzheimer's type changes induced by Borrelia spirochetes. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 27(2): 228-36.
104. Gutacker M, Valsangiacomo C, Balmelli T, et al. Arguments against the involvement of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Alzheimer's disease. Res Microbiol 1998; 149(1): 31-7.
105. Marques AR, Weir SC, Fahle GA, Fischer SH. Lack of evidence of Borrelia involvement in Alzheimer's disease: J Infect Dis 2000; 182(3): 1006-7.
106. McLaughlin R, Ng Y, Kin NM, et al. Alzheimer’s disease may not be a spirochetosis. Neuroreport 1999; 10: 1489-91.
107. Miklossy J, Gern L, Darekar P, Janzer RC, Van der Loos H. Senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads contain DNA? J Spirochetal Tick-borne Dis 1995; 2: 1-5.
108. Noguchi H, Moore JW. A Demonstration of Treponema Pallidum in the Brain in Cases of General Paralysis. J Exp Med 1913; 17(2): 232-8.
109. Riviere GR, Riviere KH, Smith KS. Molecular and immunological evidence of oral Treponema in the human brain and their association with Alzheimer's disease. Oral Microbiol Immunol 2002; 17(2): 113-8.
110. Foschi F, Izard J, Sasaki H, et al. Treponema denticola in disseminating endodontic infections. J Dent Res 2006; 85(8): 761-5.
111. Kountouras J, Tsolaki M, Gavalas E, et al. Relationship between Helicobacter pylori infection and Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2006; 66(6): 938-40.
112. Malaguarnera M, Bella R, Alagona G, et al. Helicobacter pylori and Alzheimer's disease: a possible link. Eur J Intern Med 2004; 15(6): 381-6.
113. McCaddon A, Regland B, Hudson P, Davies G. Functional vitamin B(12) deficiency and Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2002; 58(9): 1395-9.
114. Schmidt R, Schmidt H, Curb JD, et al. Early inflammation and dementia: a 25-year follow-up of the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Ann Neurol 2002; 52(2): 168-74.
115. Kountouras J, Mylopoulos N, Chatzopoulos D, et al. Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of chronic open-angle glaucoma. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162(11): 1237-44.
116. Bayer AU, Ferrari F, Erb C. High occurrence rate of glaucoma among patients with Alzheimer's disease. Eur Neurol 2002; 47(3): 165-8.
117. Tamura H, Kawakami H, Kanamoto T, et al. High frequency of open-angle glaucoma in Japanese patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci 2006; 246(1-2): 79-83.
118. Sugiyama T, Utsunomiya K, Ota H, et al. Comparative study of cerebral blood flow in patients with normal-tension glaucoma and control subjects. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141(2): 394-6.
119. Kountouras J, Boziki M, Gavalas E, et al. Eradication of Helicobacter pylori may be beneficial in the management of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol 2009; 256(5): 758-67.
120. Roubaud-Baudron C, Krolak-Salmon P, Quadrio I, Megraud F, Salles N. Impact of chronic Helicobacter pylori infection on Alzheimer's disease: preliminary results. Neurobiol Aging 2012; 33(5): 1.
121. Roubaud BC, Letenneur L, Langlais A, et al. Does Helicobacter pylori infection increase incidence of dementia? The Personnes Agees QUID Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2013; 61(1): 74-8.
122. Balin BJ, Gerard HC, Arking EJ, et al. Identification and localization of Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Alzheimer's brain. Med Microbiol Immunol 1998; 187(1): 23-42.
123. MacIntyre A, Abramov R, Hammond CJ, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection promotes the transmigration of monocytes through human brain endothelial cells. J Neurosci Res 2003; 71(5): 740-50.
124. Little CS, Hammond CJ, MacIntyre A, Balin BJ, Appelt DM. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces Alzheimer-like amyloid plaques in brains of BALB/c mice. Neurobiol Aging 2004; 25(4): 419-29.
125. Yucesan C, Sriram S. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of the central nervous system. Curr Opin Neurol 2001; 14(3): 355-9.
126. Finch CE, Morgan TE. Systemic inflammation, infection, ApoE alleles, and Alzheimer disease: a position paper. Curr Alzheimer Res 2007; 4(2): 185-9.
127. Boman J, Soderberg S, Forsberg J, et al. High prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with cardiovascular disease and in middle-aged blood donors. J Infect Dis 1998; 178(1): 274-7.
128. Paradowski B, Jaremko M, Dobosz T, Leszek J, Noga L. Evaluation of CSF-Chlamydia pneumoniae, CSF-tau, and CSF-Abeta42 in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. J Neurol 2007; 254(2): 154-9.
129. Boelen E, Steinbusch HW, van der Ven AJ, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of brain cells: an in vitro study. Neurobiol Aging 2007; 28(4): 524-32.