Chronic inflammation and amyloidogenesis in Alzheimer's disease - Role of spirochetes

Journal of Alzheimer's Disease

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 381-391

  Miklossy, Judith ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid ; Bacteria; Borrelia burgdorferi; Chronic inflammation; Dementia; General paresis; Intestinal spirochetes; LPS; Lyme neuroborreliosis; Neurospirochetosis; Oral spirochetes; Spirochetes; Syphilis; Treponema pallidum

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; CYTOKINE; FREE RADICAL; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE; NITRIC OXIDE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; TAU PROTEIN;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYLOIDOGENESIS; APOPTOSIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BLOOD VESSEL PERMEABILITY; BORRELIA BURGDORFERI; BRAIN ATROPHY; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DEMENTIA; HUMAN; LYME DISEASE; NONHUMAN; PARESIS; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; REVIEW; SPIROCHETE; SYPHILIS; TREPONEMA PALLIDUM;

EID: 47849120645     PISSN: 13872877     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3233/JAD-2008-13404     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. L. Abel, F.O. Sanchez, J. Oberti, N.V. Thuc, L.V. Hoa, V.D. Lap, E. Skamene, P.H. Lagrange and E. Schurr, Susceptibility to leprosy is linked to the human NRAMP1 gene, J Infect Dis 177 (1998), 133-145.
2. A. Alzheimer, Über eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Himrinde, Allg Z Psychiat Med 64 (1907), 146-148.
3. A. Alzheimer, Über eigenartige Krankheitsfälle des späteren Alters, Z Ges Neurol Psychiat 4 (1911), 356-385.
4. B.J. Balin, H.C. Gerard, E.J. Arking, D.M. Appelt, P.J. Branigan, J.T. Abrams, J.A. Whittum-Hudson and A.P. Hudson, Identification and localization of Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Alzheimer's brain, Med Microbiol Immunol 187 (1998), 23-42.
5. L. Bertram and R.E. Tanzi, The genetic epidemiology of neurodegenerative disease, J Clin Invest 115 (2005), 1449-1457.
6. S. Bieler, L. Estrada, R. Lagos, M. Baeza, J. Castilla and C. Soto, Amyloid formation modulates the biological activity of a bacterial protein, J Biol Chem 280 (2005), 26880-26885.
7. L. Bitting, A. Naidu, B. Cordell and G.M. Jr. Murphy, Beta-amyloid peptide secretion by a microglial cell line is induced by beta-amyloid-(25-35) and lipopolysaccharide, J Biol Chem 271 (1996), 16084-16089.
8. P. Blocq and G. Marinesco, Sur les lésions et la pathogénie de l'épilepsie dite essentielle, Semaine Médicale 12 (1892), 445-446.
9. F. Bonfiglio, Di speciali reperti in un caso di probabile sifilide cerebrale, Riv Sperim Fren 34 (1908), 42-72.
10. B.M. Bradt, W.P. Kolb and N.R. Cooper, Complement-dependent proinflammatory properties of the Alzheimer's disease beta-peptide, J Exp Med 188 (1998), 431-438.
11. W. Burgdorfer, A.G. Barbour, S.F. Hayes, J.L. Benach, E. Grunwaldt and J.P. Davis, Lyme disease - a tick-borne spirochetosis? Science 216 (1982), 1317-1319.
12. G.L. Campbell, C.L. Fritz, D. Fish, J. Nowakowski, R.B. Nadelman and G.P.Wormser, Estimation of the incidence of Lyme disease, Am J Epidemiol 148 (1998), 1018-1026.
13. M. Carrio, N. Gonzalez-Montalban, A. Vera, A. Villaverde and S. Ventura, Amyloid-like properties of bacterial inclusion bodies, J Mol Biol 347 (2005), 1025-1037.
14. J.A. Carroll, D.W. Dorward and F. Gherardini, Identification of a transferrin-binding protein from Borrelia burgdorferi, Infect Immun 64 (1996), 2911-2916.
15. M.R. Chapman, L.S. Robinson, J.S. Pinkner, R. Roth, J. Heuser, M. Hammar, S. Normark and S.J. Hultgren, Role of Escherichia coli curli operons in directing amyloid fiber formation, Science 295 (2002), 851-855.
16. D.L. Cox, Culture of Treponema pallidum, Meth Enzymol 236 (1994), 390-405.
17. M.J. Dupuis, Multiple neurologic manifestations of Borrelia burgdorferi infection, Rev Neurol 144 (1988), 765-775.
18. B.A. Fallon and J.A. Nields, Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness, Am J Psychiatry 151 (1994), 1571-1683.
19. O. Fischer, Miliare Nekrosen mit drusigen Wucherungen der Neurofibrillen, eine regelmässige Veränderung der Hirnrinde bei seniler Demenz, Monatschr F Psychiat Neurol 22 (1907), 361-372.
20. T.J. Fleming, D.E. Wallsmith and R.S. Rosenthal, Arthropathic properties of gonococcal peptidoglycan fragments: implications for the pathogenesis of disseminated gonococcal disease, Infect Immun 52 (1986), 600-608.
21. E. Fournie-Amazouz, G. Baranton, J.P. Carlier, G. Chambreuil, F. Cohadon, P. Collin, A. Gougeon Jolivet, I. Hermes, C. Lemarie and I. Saint Girons, Isolations of intestinal spirochaetes from the blood of human patients, J Hosp Infect 30 (1995), 160-162.
22. A. Fox, Role of bacterial debris in inflammatory diseases of the joint and eye, APMIS 98 (1990), 957-968.
23. C. Foyn Bruun, M. Rygg, K. Nordstoga, K. Sletten and G. Marhaug, Serum amyloid A protein in mink during endotoxin induced inflammation and amyloidogenesis, Scand J Immunol 40 (1994), 337-344.
24. F. Gallyas, Silver staining of Alzheimer's neurofibrillary changes by means of physical development, Acta Morphol Acad Sci Hung 19 (1971), 1-8.
25. M.F. Gebbink, D. Claessen, B. Bouma, L. Dijkhuizen and H.A. Wosten, Amyloids - a functional coat for microorganisms, Nat Rev Microbiol 3 (2005), 333-341.
26. G.G. Glenner and C.W. Wong, Alzheimer's disease: initial report of the purification and characterization of a novel cerebrovascular amyloid protein, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 120 (1984), 885-890.
27. M. Goedert, C.M. Wischik, R.A. Crowther, J.E. Walker and A. Klug, Cloning and sequencing of the cDNA encoding a core protein of the paired helical filament of Alzheimer disease: identification as the microtubule-associated protein tau, Proc Nat Acad Sci 85 (1988), 4051-4055.
28. rd and C. Araoz, Brain interleukin 1 and S-100 immunoreactivity are elevated in Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86 (1989), 7611-7615.
29. E. Griffiths, Iron and bacterial virulence - a brief overview, Biol Met 4 (1991), 7-13.
30. W.J. Griffiths, A.L. Kelly, S.J. Smith and T.M. Cox, Localization of iron transport and regulatory proteins in human cells, QJM 93 (2000), 575-587.
31. J. Guo, T. Arai, J. Miklossy and P.L. McGeer, A-beta and tau form soluble complexes that may promote self aggregation of both into the insoluble forms observed in Alzheimer disease, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (2006), 1953-1958.
32. M. Gutacker, C. Valsangiacomo, T. Balmelli, M.V. Bernasconi, C. Bouras and J.C. Piffaretti, Arguments against the involvement of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Alzheimer's disease, Res Microbiol 149 (1998), 31-35.
33. B. Hauss-Wegrzyniak, P.D. Vraniak and G.L. Wenk, LPS-induced neuroinflammatory effects do not recover with time, Neuroreport 11 (2000), 1759-1763.
34. B. Hauss-Wegrzyniak and G.L.Wenk, Beta-amyloid deposition in the brains of rats chronically infused with thiorphan or lipopolysaccharide: the role of ascorbic acid in the vehicle, Neurosci Lett 322 (2002), 75-78.
35. R.F. Itzhaki, W.R. Lin, D. Shang, G.K.Wilcock, B. Faragher and G.A. Jamieson, Herpes simplex virus type 1 in brain and risk of Alzheimer's disease, Lancet 349 (1997), 241-244.
36. R.F. Itzhaki, C.B. Dobson and M.A. Wozniak, Herpes simplex virus type 1 and Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol 55 (2004), 299-301.
37. F. Jahnel, Ueber einige neuere Ergebnisse von Spirochaetenumtersuchungen bei der Progressive Paralyse, Allgemein Ztsch f Psychiat 75 (1917), 503-519.
38. F. Jahnel, Ein Verfahren zur elektiven Spirochätendarstellung in einzelnen Schnitten des Zentralnervensystems, Deutsche Med Wochenschr 29 (1920), 793-794.
39. G.A. Jamieson, N.J. Maitland, G.K. Wilcock, J. Craske and R.F. Itzhaki, Latent herpes simplex virus type 1 in normal and Alzheimer's disease brains, J Med Virol 33 (1991), 224-227.
40. J.T. Jarrett and P.T. Lansbury, Amyloid fibril formation requires a chemically discriminating nucleation event: studies of an amyloidogenic sequence from the bacterial protein OsmB, Biochemistry 31 (1992), 12345-12352.
41. J. Kang, H.G. Lemaire, A. Unterbeck, J.M. Salbaum, C.L. Masters, K.H. Grzeschik, G. Multhaup, K. Beureuther and B. Muller-Hill, The precursor of Alzheimer's disease amyloid A4 protein resembles a cell-surface receptor, Nature 325 (1987), 733-736.
42. P. Kraiczy, C. Skerka, M. Kirschfink, V. Brade and P.F. Zipfel, Immune evasion of Borrelia burgdorferi by acquisition of human complement regulators FHL-1/reconectin and Factor H, Eur J Immunol 31 (2001), 1674-1684.
43. P. Kraiczy, C. Skerka, P.F. Zipfel and V. Brade, Complement regulator-acquiring surface proteins of Borrelia burgdorferi: a new protein family involved in complement resistance, Wien Klin Wochenschr 114 (2002), 568-573.
44. T.J. Lehman, J.B. Allen, P.H. Plotz and R.L. Wilder, Polyarthritis in rats following the systemic injection of Lactobacillus casei cell walls in aqueous suspension, Arthritis Rheum 26 (1983), 1259-1265.
45. C.S. Little, C.J. Hammond, A. MacIntyre, B.J. Balin and D.M. Appelt, Chlamydia pneumoniae induces Alzheimerlike amyloid plaques in brains of BALB/c mice, Neurobiol Aging 25 (2004), 419-429.
46. O. Lubarsch, F. Henke and R. Roessle, Handbuch der Speziellen Pathologischen Anatomie und Histologie, XIII Erkrankungen des Zentralen Nervensystem Vol II. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Goettingen, Heidelberg, 1958, 1052.
47. A.B. MacDonald and J.M. Miranda, Concurrent neocortical borreliosis and Alzheimer's disease, Hum Pathol 18 (1987), 759-761.
48. A.B. MacDonald, Concurrent neocortical borreliosis and Alzheimer's Disease, Ann NY Acad Sci 539 (1988), 468-470.
49. A.R. Marques, S.C.Weir, G.A. Fahle and S.H. Fischer, Lack of evidence of Borrelia involvement in Alzheimer's disease, J Infect Dis 182 (2000), 1006-1007.
50. C.L. Masters, G. Simms, N.A.Weinman, G. Multhaup, B.L. McDonald and K. Beyreuther, Amyloid plaque core protein in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome, Proc Nat Acad Sci 82 (1985), 4245-4249.
51. P.L. McGeer, E. McGeer, J. Rogers and J. Sibley, Antiinflammatory drugs and Alzheimer disease, Lancet 335 (1990), 1037.
52. P.L. McGeer and E.G. McGeer, The inflammatory response system of brain: Implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases, Brain Res Rev 21 (1995), 195-218.
53. P.L. McGeer and E.G. McGeer, Polymorphisms in inflammatory genes and the risk of Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol 58 (2001), 1790-1792.
54. P.L. McGeer and E.G. McGeer, Local neuroinflammation and the progression of Alzheimer's disease, J Neurovirol 8 (2002), 529-538.
55. P.L. McGeer and J. Rogers, Anti-inflammatory agents as a therapeutic approach to Alzheimer's disease, Neurology 42 (1992), 447-449.
56. P.L. McGeer, M. Schulze and E.G. McGeer, Arthritis and antiinflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer's disease: A review of 17 epidemiological studies, Neurology 47 (1996), 425-432.
57. R. McLaughlin, N.M. Kin, M.F. Chen, N.P. Nair and E.C. Chan, Alzheimer's disease may not be a spirochetosis, Neuroreport 10 (1999), 1489-1491.
58. H.H. Merritt, R.D. Adams and H.C. Solomon, Neurosyphilis, Oxford University Press, London, 1946.
59. J. Miklossy, Alzheimer's disease - A spirochetosis? Neuroreport 4 (1993), 841-848.
60. J. Miklossy, The spirochetal etiology of Alzheimer's disease: A putative therapeutic approach, in: Alzheimer Disease: Therapeutic Strategies. Proceedings of the Third International Springfield Alzheimer Symposium, Part I, E. Giacobini and R. Becker, eds, Birkhauser Boston Inc., 1994, pp. 41-48.
61. J. Miklossy, S. Kasas, R.C. Janzer, F. Ardizzoni and H. Van der Loos, Further morphological evidence for a spirochetal etiology of Alzheimer's Disease, Neuroreport 5 (1994), 1201-1204.
62. J. Miklossy, L. Gern, P. Darekar, R.C. Janzer and H. Van der Loos, Senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads contain DNA? J Spirochetal and Tick-borne Dis 2 (1995), 1-5.
63. J. Miklossy, P. Darekar, L. Gern, R.C. Janzer and H. Van der Loos, Bacterial peptidoglycan in neuritic plaques in Alzheimer's disease, Azheimer's Res 2 (1996), 95-100.
64. J. Miklossy, Chronic inflammation and amyloidogenesis in Alzheimer's disease: Putative role of bacterial peptidoglycan, a potent inflammatory and amyloidogenic factor, Alzheimer's Dis Rev 3 (1998), 345-351.
65. J. Miklossy, K. Khalili, L. Gern, R.L. Ericson, P. Darekar, L. Bolle, J. Hurlimann and B.J. Paster, Borrelia burgdorferi persists in the brain in chronic Lyme neuroborreliosis and may be associated with Alzheimer disease, J Alzheimer's Dis 6 (2004), 1-11.
66. J. Miklossy, A. Kis, A. Radenovic, L. Miller, L. Forro, R. Martins, K. Reiss, N. Darbinian, P. Darekar, L. Mihaly and K. Khalili, Beta-amyloid deposition and Alzheimer's type changes induced by Borrelia spirochetes, Neurobiol Aging 27 (2006), 228-236.
67. J. Miklossy, S. Rosemberg and P.L. McGeer, Beta amyloid deposition in the atrophic form of general paresis, in: Alzheimer's Disease: New Advances, K. Iqbal, B. Winblad and J. Avila, eds, Medimond, International Proceedings, 2006, pp. 429-433.
68. Z. Nagy, The last neuronal division: a unifying hypothesis for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, J Cell Mol Med 9 (2005), 531-541.
69. H. Noguchi and J.W. Moore, A demonstration of Treponema pallidum in the brain of general paralysis cases, J Exp Med 17 (1913), 232-238.
70. A. Nunomura, R.J. Castellani, X. Zhu, P.I. Moreira, G. Perry and M.A. Smith, Involvement of oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease, J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 65 (2006), 631-641.
71. S.H. Ohanian and J.H. Schwab, Persistence of group a streptococcal cell walls related to chronic inflammation of rabbit dermal connective tissue, J Exp Med 125 (1967), 1137-1148.
72. S. Ohnishi, A. Koide and S.J. Koide, Solution conformation and amyloid-like fibril formation of a polar peptide derived from a β-hairpin in the OspA single-layer β-sheet, Mol Biol 301 (2000), 477-489.
73. S. Ohnishi, A. Koide and S. Koide, The roles of turn formation and cross-strand interactions in fibrillization of peptides derived from the OspA single-layer beta-sheet, Protein Sci 10 (2001), 2083-2092.
74. A.C. Pacheco e Silva, Localisation du Treponema Pallidum dans le cerveau des paralytiques généraux, Rev Neurol 2 (1926), 558-565.
75. A.C. Pacheco e Silva, Espirochetose dos centros nervos, Memorias do hospicio de Juquery 3-4 (1926-1927), 1-27.
76. G. Perides, L.M. Tanner-Brown, M.A. Eskildsen and M.S. Klempner, Borrelia burgdorferi induces matrix metalloproteinases by neural cultures, J Neurosci Res 58 (1999), 779-790.
77. G. Perry, P.L. Richey, S.L. Siedlak, M.A. Smith, P. Mulvihill, D.A. DeWitt, J. Barnett, B.D. Greenberg and R.N. Kalaria, Immunocytochemical evidence that the beta-protein precursor is an integral component of neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease, Am J Pathol 143 (1993), 1586-1593.
78. G. Perusini, Ueber klinisch und histologisch eigenartrige psychische Erkrankungen des spaeteren Lebensalters, in: Histologische and histopathologische Arbeiten, Vol. III, F. Nissl and A. Alzheimer, eds, Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1910, pp. 297-351.
79. M.M. Picken, The changing concepts of amyloid, Arch Pathol Lab Med 125 (2000), 38-43.
80. X. Qiao, D.J. Cummins and S.M. Paul, Neuroinflammation-induced acceleration of amyloid deposition in the APPV717F transgenic mouse, Eur J Neurosci 14 (2001), 474-482.
81. R.L. Richardson, E.M. Kim, T. Gardiner and E. O'Hare, Chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of lipopolysaccharide: effects of ibuprofen treatment and behavioural and histopathological correlates, Behav Pharmacol 16 (2005), 531-541.
82. G.R. Riviere, S.K. Weisz, D.F. Adams and D.D. Thomas, Pathogen-related oral spirochetes from dental plaque are invasive, Infect Immun 59 (1991), 3377-3380.
83. G.R. Riviere, K.H. Riviere and K.S. Smith, Molecular and immunological evidence of oral Treponema in the human brain and their association with Alzheimer's disease, Oral Microbiol Immunol 17 (2002), 113-118.
84. J. Rogers, N.R. Cooper, S.Webster, J. Schultz, P.L. McGeer, S.D. Styren, W.H. Civin, L. Brachova, B. Bradt, P. Ward et al., Complement activation by beta-amyloid in Alzheimer disease, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89 (1992), 10016-10020.
85. A.D. Roses, A model for susceptibility polymorphisms for complex diseases: apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease, Neurogenetics 1 (1997), 3-11.
86. A.M. Saunders, W.J. Strittmatter, D. Schmechel, P.H. St. George-Hyslop, M.A. Pericak- Vance, S.H. Joo, B.L. Rosi, J.F. Gusella, D.R. Crapper-MacLachlan, M.J. Alberts, C. Hulette, B. Crain, D. Goldgaber and A.D. Roses, Association of apolipoprotein E allele E4 with late-onset familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease, Neurology 43 (1993), 1467-1472.
87. D. Schubert, R. Schroeder, M. LaCorbiere, T. Saitoh and G. Cole, Amyloid beta protein precursor is possibly a heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein, Science 241 (1988), 1759-1763.
88. D.J. Selkoe, Amyloid beta-protein and the genetics of Alzheimer's disease, J Biol Chem 271 (1996), 18295-18298.
89. D.J. Selkoe, Alzheimer's disease: genotypes, phenotypes, and treatments, Science 275 (1997), 630-631.
90. M.A. Shaw, I.J. Donaldson, A. Collins, C.S. Peacock, Z. Lins-Lainson, J.J. Shaw, F. Ramos, F. Silveira and J.M. Blackwell, Association and linkage of leprosy phenotypes with HLA class II and tumour necrosis factor genes, Genes Immun 2 (2001), 196-204.
91. J.G. Sheng, S.H. Bora, G. Xu, D.R. Borchelt, D.L. Price and V.E. Koliatsos, Lipopolysaccharide-induced-neuroinflammation increases intracellular accumulation of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid beta peptide in APP-swe transgenic mice, Neurobiol Dis 14 (2003), 133-145.
92. R. Sherrington, E.I. Rogaev, Y. Liang, E.A. Rogaeva, G. Levesque, M. Ikeda, H. Chi, C. Lin, G. Li and K. Holman, Cloning of a gene bearing missense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease, Nature 375 (1995), 754-760.
93. C.I. Small, G.A. Lyles and K. C.Breen, Lipopolysaccharide stimulates the secretion of the amyloid precursor protein via a protein kinase C-mediated pathway, Neurobiol Dis 19 (2005), 400-406.
94. A.D. Snow, R. Sekiguchi, D. Nochlin, P. Fraser, K. Kimata, A. Mizutani, M. Arai, W.A. Schreier and D.G. Morgan, An important role of heparan sulfate proteoglycan (Perlecan) in a model system for the deposition and persistence of fibrillar A beta-amyloid in rat brain, Neuron 12 (1994), 219-234.
95. M.G. Spillantini and M. Goedert, Tau protein pathology in neurodegenerative diseases, Trends Neurosci 21 (1998), 428-433.
96. W.F. Stewart, C. Kawas, M. Corrada and E.J. Metter, Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of NSAID use, Neurology 48 (1997), 626-632.
97. S.A. Stimpson, R.R. Brown, S.K. Anderle, D.G. Klapper, R.L. Clark, W.J. Cromartie and J.H. Schwab, Arthropathic properties of cell wall polymers from normal flora bacteria, Infect Immun 51 (1986), 240-249.
98. E. Straeussler, Zur Lehre von der miliaren disseminierten Form der Hirnlues und ihre Kombination mit der progressiven Paralyse, Monatsschr f Psych u Neurol 19 (1906), 244-257.
99. R. Strohmeyer, Y. Shen and J. Rogers, Detection of complement alternative pathway mRNA and proteins in the Alzheimer's disease brain, Brain Res Mol Brain Res 81 (2000), 7-18.
100. R. Strohmeyer, M. Ramirez, G.J. Cole, K. Mueller and J Rogers, Association of factor H of the alternative pathway of complement with agrin and complement receptor 3 in the Alzheimer's disease brain, J Neuroimmunol 131 (2002), 135-146.
101. R.A. Strugnell, T. Kent, C.J. Handley and S. Faine, Experimental syphilitic orchitis. Relationship between Treponema pallidum infection and testis synthesis of proteoglycans, Am J Pathol 133 (1988), 110-117.
102. R.E. Tanzi and L. Bertram, New frontiers in Alzheimer's disease genetics, Neuron 32 (2001), 181-184.
103. R.E Tanzi, G.Vaula, D.M. Romano, M. Mortilla, T.L. Huang, R.G. Tupler, W. Wasco, B.T. Hyman, J.L. Haines, B.J. Jenkins, M. Kalaitsidaki, A.C. Warren, M.C. McInnis, S.E. Antonarakis, H. Karlinsky, M.E. Percy, L. Connor, J. Growdon, D.R. Crapper-McLachlan, J.F. Gusella and P.H. St. George-Hyslop, Assessment of amyloid beta-protein precursor gene mutations in a large set of familial and sporadic Alzheimer disease cases, Am J Hum Genet 51 (1992), 273-282.
104. R.D. Terry and P. Davies, Dementia of the Alzheimer type, Ann Rev Neurosci 3 (1980), 77-95.
105. B.A.I. Veld, A. Ruitenberg, L.J. Launer, A. Hofman, M.M.B. Breteler and B.H.C. Stricker, Duration of non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug use and risk of Alzheimer's disease. The Rotterdam study, Neurobiol Aging 21S (2000), 204.
106. P.J. Vinken and G.W. Bruyn, Handbook of Neurology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, New York, Vol. 33, 1978.
107. W. Volland, Die Kolloide Degeneration des Gehirns bei progressiver Paralyse in ihrer Beziehung zur lokalen Amyloidose, Dtsch Pathol Gesellsch 31 (1938), 515-520.
108. S. Webster, L.F. Lue, L. Brachova, A.J. Tenner, P.L. McGeer, K. Terai, D.G. Walker, B. Bradt, N. Cooper and J. Rogers, Molecular and cellular characterization of the membrane attack complex, C5b-9, in Alzheimer's disease, Neurobiol Aging 18 (1997), 415-421.
109. E.D. Weinberg, Iron and infection, Microbiol Rev 42 (1978), 45-66.
110. E.D. Weinberg, Iron depletion: a defense against intracellular infection and neoplasia, Life Sci 50 (1992), 1289-1297.
111. B. Wilske, V. Fingerle, V. Preac-Mursic, S. Jauris-Heipke, A. Hofmann, H. Loy, H.W. Pfister, D. Rossler and E. Soutschek, Immunoblot using recombinant antigens derived from different genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Med Microbiol Immunol 183 (1994), 43-59.
112. A. Wu, M.N. Pangalos, S. Efthimiopoulos, J. Shioi and N.K. Robakis, Appican expression induces morphological changes in C6 glioma cells and promotes adhesion of neural cells to the extracellular matrix, J Neurosci 17 (1997), 4987-4993.
113. P.P. Zandi, J.C. Anthony, K.M. Hayden, K. Mehta, L. Mayer and J.C. Breitner, Reduced incidence of AD with NSAID but not H2 receptor antagonists: The Cache County Study, Neurology 59 (2000), 880-886.