Gender and candidate communication: Videostyle, webstyle, newstyle

Gender and Candidate Communication: VideoStyle, WebStyle, NewStyle

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 1-240

  Bystrom, Dianne G ^a   Banwart, Mary Christine ^a   Kaid, Lynda Lee ^a   Robertson, Terry A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84909342424     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203323137     Document Type: Book

References (226)

1. Aday, S., & Devitt, J. (2001). Style over substance. Newspaper coverage of female candidates: Spotlight on Elizabeth Dole. Washington, DC: The Women's Leadership Fund.
2. Alexander, D., & Andersen, K. (1993). Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 503-525.
3. Alliance for Better Campaigns (2001, February 5). Alliance criticizes TV station for airing little candidate discourse, while profiting from a windfall of political spending in 2000. Available at:www.bettercampaigns.org/press/release.
4. Alvarez, A. (2004). Hillary Clinton-A quick biography and career dossier. Available at: www.politics-now.com/news/hillaryclintonbiography.htm.
5. Anez, B. (2000a, February 5). O'Keefe accuses foes of digging for political dirt. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
6. Anez, B. (2000b, September 29). Martz, O'Keefe debate turns ugly. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
7. Anez, B. (2000c, November 5). Term limits assure turnover on Tuesday. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
8. Ansolabehere, S., Behr, R., & Iyengar, S. (1993). The media game: American politics in the television age. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
9. Ansolabehere, S., & Iyengar, S. (1995). Going negative: How political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York: The Free Press.
10. Ansolabehere, S., Iyengar, S., & Simon, A. (1999). Replicating experiments using aggregate and survey data: The case of negative advertising and turnout. American Political Science Review, 93(4), 901-909.
11. Ansolabehere, S., Iyengar, S., Simon, A., & Valentino, N. (1994). Does attack advertising demobilize the electorate? American Political Science Review, 88, 829-838.
12. Ashmore, R. D., Del Boca, F. K, & Wohlers, A. J. (1986). Gender stereotypes. In R. D. Ashmore & F. K. Del Boca (Eds.), The social psychology of female-male relations: A critical analysis of central concepts (pp. 69-119). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
13. The Associated Press (2000, November 8). Key findings from voter survey: Updates throughout. The Associated Press State & Local Wire [available: www.lexis-nexis.com].
14. Banwart, M. C. (2002). Videostyle and webstyle in 2000: Comparing the gender differences of candidate presentations in political advertising and on the Internet. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
15. Banwart, M. C., & Bystrom, D. G. (2001, November). Gender influences on gathering political information: Examining perceptions of and sources for obtaining political knowledge in elections. Presented at the annual meeting of the National Communication Association, Atlanta, GA.
16. Banwart, M. C., Bystrom, D. G., & Robertson, T. (2003). From the primary to the general election:A comparative analysis of media coverage of candidates in mixed-gender races for governor and U.S. Senate in 2000. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(5), 658-676.
17. Banwart, M. C., Bystrom, D. G., Robertson, T., & Miller, J. (2003). Issue agendas in candidate messages vs. media coverage: Are women and men on the same page? In L. L. Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D.G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign. Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.
18. Banwart, M. C., & Carlin, D. B. (2001, November). The effects of negative political advertising on gendered image perception and voter intent: A longitudinal study. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Communication Association, Atlanta, GA.
19. Banwart, M. C., & Kaid, L. L. (2003). Behind their skirts: Clinton's appeal to women voters. In R. E. Denton & R. L. Holloway (Eds.), Images, scandal, and communication strategies of the Clinton presidency (pp. 91-112). Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
20. Bem, S. L. (1993). The lenses of gender: Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
21. Bennett, L. M., & Bennett, S. E. (1989). Enduring gender differences in political interest: The impact of socialization and political dispositions. American Politics Quarterly, 17(1), 105-122.
22. Benze, J. G., & Declercq, E. R. (1985). Content of television political spot ads for female candidates. Journalism Quarterly, 82, 278-283, 288.
23. Bimber, B. (1998, June/July). The gender gap in electronic democracy. The National Voter, 47(4), 8-9.
24. Braden, M. (1996). Women politicians and the media. Lexington, KY: The University of Kentucky Press.
25. Broder, D. A. (1989, 19 January). Should news media police accuracy of ads? Washington Post, p. A22.
26. Broder, D. S. (2002). N.C. race narrows for Dole, Bowles: GOP hopeful still in lead for senate. Washington Post, A06.
27. Brown, M. E. (1997). Feminism and cultural politics: Television audiences and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Political Communication, 14, 255-270.
28. Bystrom, D. G. (1994, November). Gender differences and similarities in the presentation of self: The videostyles of female vs. male U.S. Senate candidates in 1992. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, LA.
29. Bystrom, D. G. (1995). Candidate gender and the presentation of self: The videostyles of men and women in U.S. Senate campaigns. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
30. Bystrom, D. G. (1999, November). Why not a woman? Reactions to the presidential candidacy of Elizabeth Dole. Paper presented at the National Communication Association convention, Chicago, IL.
31. Bystrom, D. G. (2003, November). Winning strategies: Viewer reactions to female and male videostyles. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Communication Association, Miami, FL.
32. Bystrom, D. G. (in press). Media content and candidate viability: The case of Elizabeth Dole. In M. S. McKinney, D. G. Bystrom, L. L. Kaid, & D. B. Carlin (Eds.), Communicating politics:Engaging the public in democratic life. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
33. Bystrom, D. G., & Kaid, L.L. (1996, November). Videostyle and technology in political advertising:An update on women candidates in the 1994 election. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Diego, CA.
34. Bystrom, D. G., & Kaid, L. L. (2002). Are women candidates transforming campaign communication? A comparison of advertising videostyles in the 1990s. In C. R. Rosenthal (Ed.), Women transforming Congress. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
35. Bystrom, D. G., & Miller, J. L. (1999). Gendered communication styles and strategies in campaign 1996: The videostyles of women and men candidates. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election (pp. 303-318). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
36. Bystrom, D. G, & Miller, J. L. (1999). Gendered communication styles and strategies in campaign 1996: The videostyles of women and men candidates. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 293-302). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
37. Bystrom, D. G., Robertson, T., & Banwart, M. C. (2001). Framing the fight: An analysis of media coverage of female and male candidates in primary races for governor and U. Senate in 2000. American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 1999-2013.
38. Campbell, K. K. (1989). Man cannot speak for her: A critical study of early feminist rhetoric. New York: Greenwood Press.
39. Campbell, K. K., & Jerry, E. C. (1988). Woman and speaker: A conflict in roles. In S. S. Brehon (Ed.), Seeing female: Social roles and personal lives (pp. 123-133). New York: Greenwood Press.
40. Carlson, M. (2000, November 20). Capitol Hill: If time doesn't heal all wounds, a Senate seat just might; after a dogged campaign, the First Lady gets a chance to work on a legacy all her own. Time, 156, 58-59.
41. CBS News Poll. (2004, January 18). 04 election could be 2000 redux. Available at:www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/17/opinion/polls/main593848.
42. Center for American Women and Politics (1997). Gender gap: Voting, party identification and presidential ratings. Rutgers University, Eagleton Institute of Politics. Available at: www.rci.rutgers.edu/~cawp/facts/ggap.pdf.
43. Center for American Women and Politics. (2002). Summary of women candidates for selected offices: 1970-2002 (major party nominees). Rutgers University, Eagleton Institute of Politics. Available at: www.rci.rutgers.edu/~cawp/facts/canhistory/can_histsum.pdf.
44. Center for American Women and Politics. (2004). National information bank on women in public office. Rutgers University, Eagleton Institute of Politics. Available at: www.rci.rutgers.edu/~cawp/facts1.html.
45. Center for Media and Public Affairs (2000). Campaign 2000 final: How TV news covered the general election campaign. Media Monitor, XVI(6), 1-9.
46. Chang, C., & Hitchon, J. (1997). Mass media impact on voter response to women candidates:Theoretical development. Communication Theory, 7, 29-52.
47. Clinton, H. R. (2003). Living history. New York: Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group.
48. Clinton, H. R. (1992). Remarks to Wellesley College class of 1992. Available at: www.wellesley.edu/publicaffairs/commensement/1992/speecheshrc.html.
49. CNN.com. (2000, October 10). Lazio denies Hillary Clinton's 'soft money' charges. Available at:www.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/lazio.king/index.html.
50. Curtis, A., Shuler, S., & Grieve, P. (1994, November). Feminine and masculine style in political communication: A content analysis. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, LA.
51. Damico, D., & Rice, D. (2002, September 11). Bowles, Dole are nominees in high-profile senate race. Winston-Salem Journal Online Edition [available: www.lexis-nexis.com].
52. Darcy, R., Welch, S., & Clark, J. (1994). Women, elections, & representation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
53. Daughton, S. M. (1995). Women's issues, women's place: Gender-related problems in presidential campaigns. In K. E. Kendall (Ed.), Presidential campaign discourse (pp. 221-239). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
54. Davis, L. (1978). Camera eye-contact by the candidates in the presidential debates of 1976. Journalism Quarterly, 55, 431-437.
55. Davis, R. (1999). The web of politics: The Internet's impact on the American political system. New York: Oxford University Press.
56. Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1991). Stability and change in the U.S. public's knowledge of politics. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55, 583-612.
57. Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. London: Yale University Press.
58. Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (2000). Gender and political knowledge. In S. Tolleson-Rinehart & J. J. Josephson (Eds.), Gender and American politics: Women, men, and the political process (pp. 21-54). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
59. Deloitte & Touche, LLP. (2000, January 13). Women in elected office survey identifies obstacles for women as political leaders [On-line], 1-5. Available: www.us.deloitte.com.
60. DeRosa, K. L. (1996, March). The voice of women in American political discourse. Paper presented at the meeting of the South Central Women's Studies Association, Norman, OK.
61. DeRosa, K. L., & Bystrom, D. (1999). The voice of and for women in the 1996 presidential campaign:Style and substance of convention speeches. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 97-111). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
62. Devitt, J. (1999). Framing gender on the campaign trail: Women's executive leadership and the press. Washington, DC: The Women's Leadership Fund.
63. Dolan, K. (1997). Gender differences in support for women candidates: Is there a glass ceiling in American politics? Women & Politics, 17, 27-41.
64. Dorning, M. (1998, October 22). Carol Moseley-Braun for senator, image is asset and curse:Though she stresses here record, the democrat finds her personality and a series of missteps in the spotlight. The Chicago Tribune, A1.
65. Dow, B. J., & Boor Tonn, M. (1993). Feminine style and political judgment in the rhetoric of Ann Richards. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 79, 286-332.
66. Dulio, D. A., Goff, D. L., & Thurber, J. A. (1999). Untangled web: Internet use during the 1998 election. P.S. Politics: Political Science & Politics, 32(1), pp. 53-59.
67. Dyer, E. (2002a, June 17). Senate race grows more partisan: Democrat Erskine Bowles goes after Republican Elizabeth Dole. News & Record, B1.
68. Dyer, E. (2002b, July 16). Cash in senate race exceeds $1.2 million: The two front-runners collected about $3.7 million between April and June, recent finance reports show. News & Record, B3.
69. Filosa, G. (2000, October 1). Shaheen and Humphrey neck and neck. The Concord Monitor, pp. A1-A3.
70. Finkel, S. E., & Geer, J. G. (1998). A spot check: Casting doubt on the demobilizing attack advertising. American Journal of Political Science, 42, 573-595.
71. Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2000). Perceptions of Internet information credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 515-540.
72. Fox, R. L. (1997). Gender dynamics in congressional elections. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
73. Freedman, P., & Goldstein, K. (1999). Measuring media exposure and the effects of negative campaign ads. American Journal of Political Science, 43(4), 1189-1208.
74. Frey, L. R., Botan, C. H., Friedman, P. G., & Kreps, G. L. (1991). Investigating communication: An introduction to research methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
75. Garramone, G. M. (1984). Voter responses to negative political ads. Journalism Quarterly, 61, 250-259.
76. Garramone, G. M., Atkin, C. K., Pinkleton, B. E., & Cole, R. T. (1990). Effects of negative political advertising on the political process. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 34, 299-311.
77. Geiger, S. F., & Reeves, B. (1991). The effects of visual structure and content emphasis on the evaluation and memory of political candidates. In F. Biocca (Ed.), Television and political advertising:Vol. 1. Psychological processes (pp. 125-143). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
78. Glass, A. J. (1998, October 8). 1998 elections will test Web's political boundaries. The Atlanta Constitution, A14.
79. Goffman, E. (1973). The presentation of self in everyday life. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press.
80. Goldenberg, E. N., & Traugott, M. W. (1987). Mass media effects in recognizing and rating candidates in U.S. Senate elections. In J. Vermeer (Ed.), Campaigns in the news: Mass media and congressional elections. New York: Greenwood Press.
81. Graber, D. A. (1987). Framing election news broadcasts: News context and its impact on the 1984 presidential election. Social Science Quarterly, 68, 552-568.
82. Greer, J., & LaPointe, M. (2001). Cyber-campaigning grows up: A comparative content analysis of senatorial and gubernatorial candidates' Web sites, 1998-2000. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, September 2001.
83. Hanna, J. (2002, November 6). Analysis: Sebelius followed "a winning formula." Topeka Capital Journal. [On-line]. Available: www.c-jonline.com.
84. Hansen, G. J. (2000, November). Internet presidential campaigning: The influences of candidate Internet sites on the 2000 election. Paper presented at the National Communication Association Convention, Seattle.
85. Hansen, G. J., & Benoit, W. L. (2001). The role of significant policy issues in the 2000 presidential primaries. American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 2082-2100.
86. Hansen, G. J., & Benoit, W. L. (2002, November). Presidential campaigning on the Web: The influence of candidate World Wide Web sites in the 2000 general election. Paper presented at the National Communication Association Convention, New Orleans.
87. Hayes, B. C., & Makkai, T. (1996). Politics and the mass media: The differential impact of gender. Women & Politics, 16, 45-74.
88. Hayes, B. C., & McAllister, I. (1997). Gender, party leaders, and election outcomes in Australia, Britain, and the United States. Comparative Political Studies, 30, 3-26.
89. Heldman, C., Carroll, S. J., & Olson, S. (2000, August). Gender differences in print media coverage of presidential candidates: Elizabeth Dole's bid for the Republican nomination. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC.
90. Hirschkorn, P. (2000, October 31). Poll indicates Clinton-Lazio race tight entering final week. Available at: www.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/31/newyork.senate/.
91. Hitchon, J. C., & Chang, C. (1995). Effects of gender schematic processing on the reception of political commercials for men and women candidates. Communication Research, 22, 430-458.
92. Hitchon, J. C., Chang, C., & Harris, R. (1997). Should women emote? Perceptual bias and opinion change in response to political ads for candidates of different genders. Political Communication, 14, 49-69.
93. Hofstetter, C. R. (1976). Bias in the news: Network television coverage of the 1972 election campaign. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
94. Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. S. (1993). The consequences of gender stereotype for influence the conduct and consequences of political campaigns. New York: Columbia University Press.
95. Iyengar, S. (1979). Television news and issue salience. American Politics Quarterly, 7, 395-416.
96. Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago:The University of Chicago Press.
97. Iyengar, S., Valentino, N. A., Ansolabehere, S., & Simon, A. F. (1997). Running as a woman:Gender stereotyping in political campaigns. In P. Norris (Ed.), Women, Media, and Politics (pp. 77-98). New York: Oxford University Press.
98. Jalonick, M. C. (2000). Greatest hits: GOP campaign Web sites. Campaigns & Elections, 21(15), 56-87.
99. Jamieson, K.H. (1988). Eloquence in an electronic age: The transformation of political speechmaking. New York: Oxford University Press.
100. Jamieson, K. H. (1995). Beyond the double bind: Women and leadership. New York: Oxford University Press.
101. Jamieson, K.H., Falk, E., & Sherr, S. (1999, March). The enthymeme gap in the 1996 presidential campaign. PS: Political Science & Politics, 32, 12-17.
102. Jansen, J. (1993). Sex role stereotypes and clinical judgement. Journal of Substance Abuse, 10, 383-289.
103. Jesdanun, A. (2002, October 31). Candidates turn to Net to mobilize supporters. The Associated Press State & Local Wire [available: www.lexis-nexis.com].
104. Johnson, C. S. (2000a, January 30). Montana politicians on the "dot.com" campaign trail. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
105. Johnson, C. S. (2000b, May 11). Gubernatorial candidates take-on economy. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
106. Johnson, C. S. (2000c, September 3). Martz, O'Keefe ready to step up campaigning efforts. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
107. Johnson, C. S. (2000d, September 22). GOP buys TV ads for Martz. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
108. Johnson, C. S. (2000e, November 3). O'Keefe edge at $2.1 million. Helena Independent Record [available: www.helenair.com].
109. Johnson, C. S. (2000f, November 8). GOP sweeps state. Helena Independent Record [available:www.helenair.com].
110. Johnson, T. J., Braima, M. A., & Sothirajah, J. (1999). Doing the traditional media sidestep: Comparing the effects of the Internet and other nontraditional media with traditional media in the 1996 presidential campaign. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76, 99-123.
111. Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (1998). Cruising is believing?: Comparing Internet and traditional sources on media credibility measures. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75(2), 325-340.
112. Johnston, A., & White, A. B. (1994). Communication styles and female candidates: A study of political advertisements of men and women candidates for U.S. Senate. Political Research Quarterly, 46, 481-501.
113. Johnston, M. (1998, October, 25). Owens, Schoettler spring from different states, stock. The Denver Post, p. A20.
114. Joslyn, R. A. (1980). The content of political spot ads. Journalism Quarterly, 57, 92-98.
115. Kahn, K. F., &. Kenney, P. J. (1999). Do negative campaigns mobilize or suppress turnout? Clarifying the relationship between negativity and participation. American Political Science Review, 93, 877-889.
116. Kahn, K. F. (1991). Senate elections in the news: Examining campaign coverage. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16, 349-374.
117. Kahn, K. F. (1992) Does being male help? An investigation of gender and media effects in the U.S. Senate races. Journal of Politics, 54, 497-517.
118. Kahn, K. F. (1993). Gender differences in campaign messages: The political advertisements of men and women candidates for US Senate. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 481-502.
119. Kahn, K. F. (1994a). The distorted mirror: Press coverage of women candidates for statewide office. Journal of Politics, 54, 154-173.
120. Kahn, K. F. (1994b). Does gender make a difference? An experimental examination of sex stereotypes and press patterns in statewide campaigns. American Journal of Political Science, 38(1), 162-195.
121. Kahn, K. F. (1996). The political consequences of being a woman: How stereotypes influence the conduct and consequences of political campaigns. New York: Columbia University Press.
122. Kahn, K. F., & Geer, J. G. (1994). Creating impressions: An experimental investigation of political advertising on television. Political Behavior, 16, 93-116.
123. Kahn, K. F., & Goldenberg, E. N. (1991). Women candidates in the news: An examination of gender differences in U.S. Senate campaign coverage. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55(2), 180-199.
124. Kaid, L. L. (1994). Political advertising in the 1992 campaign. In, R. E. Denton (Ed.), The 1992 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 111-127). Westport, CT: Praeger.
125. Kaid, L. L. (1995). Measuring candidate images with semantic differentials. In K. Hacker (Ed.), Candidate images in presidential election campaigns (pp. 131-134). New York: Praeger.
126. Kaid, L. L. (1997, October). Political television advertising: A comparative perspective on styles and effects. Paper presented at the International Conference on Images of Politics, Amsterdam.
127. Kaid, L. L. (1998). Videostyle and the effects of the 1996 presidential campaign advertising. In R. E. Denton, Jr. (Ed.), The 1996 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 143-159). Westport, CT: Praeger.
128. Kaid, L. L. (1999). Political advertising: A summary of research findings. In B. Newman (Ed.), The handbook of political marketing (pp. 423-438). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
129. Kaid, L. L. (2002). Political advertising and information seeking: Comparing the exposure via traditional and Internet media channels. Journal of Advertising, XXXI, 27-35.
130. Kaid, L. L., & Davidson, D. K. (1986). Elements of videostyle: Candidate presentation through television advertising. In L. L. Kaid, D. Nimmo, & K. R. Sanders (Eds.), New perspectives on political advertising (pp. 184-209). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
131. Kaid, L. L., Gobetz, R. H., Garner, J., Leland, C. M., & Scott, D. K. (1993). Television news and presidential campaigns: The legitimization of televised political advertising. Social Science Quarterly, 74(2), 274-285.
132. Kaid, L. L., Haynes, K. J. M., & Rand, C. E. (1996). The Political Communication Center: A Catalog and Guide to the Archival Collections. Norman, OK: Political Communication Center.
133. Kaid, L. L., & Holtz-Bacha, C. (2000). Gender differences in response to televised political broadcasts:A multicountry comparison. Harvard Journal of International Press/Politics, 5(2), 17-29.
134. Kaid, L. L., & Johnston, A. (1991). Negative versus positive television advertising in US presidential campaigns, 1960-1988. Journal of Communication, 41, 53-64.
135. Kaid, L. L., & Johnston, A. (2001). Videostyle in presidential campaigns: Style and content of televised political advertising. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
136. Kaid, L. L., Leland, C. M., & Whitney, S. (1992). The impact of televised political ads: Evoking viewer responses in the 1988 presidential campaign. The Southern Speech Communication Journal, 57(4), 285-295.
137. Kaid, L. L., McKinney, M. S., & Tedesco, J. C. (2000). Civic dialogue in the 1999 presidential campaign:Candidate, media, and public voices. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
138. Kaid, L. L., McKinney, M., Tedesco, J. C., & Gaddie, K. (1999). Journalistic responsibility and political advertising: A content analysis of coverage by state and local media. Communication Studies, 50(4), 279-293.
139. Kaid, L. L., Myers, S. L., Pipps, V. & Hunter, J. (1984). Sex role perceptions and televised political advertising: Comparing male and female candidates. Women & Politics, 4(4), 41-53.
140. Kaid, L. L., & Tedesco, J. (1999). Presidential candidate presentation: Videostyle in the 1996 presidential spots. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election (pp. 209-222). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
141. Kaid, L. L, Tedesco, J. C., & McKinnon, L. M. (1996). Presidential ads as nightly news: A content analysis of 1988 and 1992 televised adwatches. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 40, 297-308.
142. Kaid, L. L., & Wadsworth, A. J. (1989). Political television commercials: An experimental study of type and length. Communication Research, 5, 55-70.
143. Kansas Secretary of State. (1996). 1996 general election official vote totals. Available at:www.kssos.org/elections.
144. Kansas Secretary of State. (2002a). 2002 general election official vote totals. Available at:www.kssos.org/elections.
145. Kansas Secretary of State. (2002b). Voter Registration and Party Affiliation. Available at:www.kssos.org/elections/02elec/voterreg102102.html.
146. Kansas Secretary of State. (2000). 2000 Kansas general election results (president). Available at:www.kssos.org/elections/elections_statistics.html.
147. Kenski, K., & Jamieson, K. H. (2001, August). The 2000 presidential campaign and differential growths in knowledge: Does the "knowledge gap" hypothesis apply to gender as well as education? Paper presented at the meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA.
148. Kern, M. (1989). 30-Second politics: Political advertising in the 1980s. New York: Praeger.
149. Kern, M., & Just, M. (1997). A gender gap among viewers? In P. Norris (Ed.), Women, media, and politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
150. Klotz, R. (1997). Positive spin: Senate campaigning on the web. P.S.: Political Science & Politics, 30, 482-486.
151. Knopf, M. E., & Boiney, J. A. (2001) The electoral glass ceiling? Gender, viability, and the news in U.S. Senate campaigns. In K. O'Connor (Ed.), Women and Congress: Running, winning, and ruling (pp. 79-101). New York: The Haworth Press Inc.
152. Koch, J. W. (1999). Candidate gender and assessments of Senate candidates. Social Science Quarterly, 80, 84-96.
153. Kondracke, M. M. (2002, December 9). The new Elizabeth Dole is anything but "uptight." Roll Call [available: www.nationaljournal.com].
154. Kramarae, C. (1995). A backstage critique of virtual reality. In S. Jones (Ed.), Cybersociety (pp. 36-56). London: Sage Publications.
155. Kraus, W. (1974). Political implication of gender roles. American Political Science Review, 68, 176-1723.
156. Krippendorf, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage Publications.
157. Laceky, T. (1999, July 19). Martz says she's running for governor. Associated Press State & Local Wire [available: www.lexis-nexis.com].
158. Lang, A. (1991). Emotion, formal features, and memory for televised political advertisements. In F. Biocca (Ed.), Television and political advertising, Vol. 1 (pp. 221-243). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
159. League of Women Voters. (1996). Women see responsive role for government. Available at:www.lwv.org/elibrary/pub/ladieshj.
160. Leeper, M. S. (1991). The impact of prejudice on female candidates: An experimental look at voter inference. American Politics Quarterly, 19(2), 248-261.
161. Lemert, J. B., Wanta, W., & Lee, T. (1999). Party identification and negative advertising in a U.S. Senate election. Journal of Communication, 49, 123-134.
162. Leventhal, H., Meyer, D., & Nerenz, D. (1980). The common sense representation of illness danger. In S. Rachman (Ed.), Medical psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 7-30). New York: Pergamon.
163. Lichter, S. R., & Noyes, R. E. (1996) Good intentions make bad news: Why Americans hate campaign journalism (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield.
164. Lichter, S.R., Noyes, R. E., & Kaid, L. L. (1999). No news or negative news: how the networks nixed the '96 campaign. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election:Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 3-13). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
165. Lutey, T. (2000, September 14). Martz goes on attack. Bozeman Daily Chronicle [available:www.gomontana.com].
166. Marist Institute for Public Opinion. (2000, September 21). Clinton vs. Lazio: After the scuffle off in Buffalo. Available at: www.maristpoll.marist.edu/nyspolls/000921hc.htm.
167. Martinez, M. D., & Delegal, T. (1990). The irrelevance of negative campaigns to political trust:Experimental and survey results. Political Communication and Persuasion, 7(1), 25-40.
168. McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. (1972). The agenda-setting function of the mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-187.
169. McLean, J. & Grenz, C. (2002, November 5). Sebelius wins: Governor-elect: it's 'time for a change'. The Topeka Capital-Journal. Available at: www.cjonline.com.
170. McMillan, S. J. (2000). The microscope and the moving target: The challenge of applying content analysis to the World Wide Web. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 80-98.
171. Miller, G. (2001). Newspaper coverage and gender: An analysis of the 1996 Illinois state legislative house district races. Women & Politics, 22, 83-100.
172. Miller, J. L. (1996). Dynamics of political advertisements, news coverage, and candidate gender: A content analysis of the campaign messages of the 1990 and 1994 California and Texas gubernatorial elections. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
173. Monneyham, S. (2002, October 11). Dole raps foe over textile troubles: Bowles says ads unfairly attack wife's company. The Commercial Appeal, A17.
174. Moon, C. (2002, August, 1). Poll respondents, focus groups agree-2002 legislature did poor job. CJOnline: The Topeka Capital-Journal [available online: www.cjonline.com].
175. Nagourney, A., & Connelly, M. (2000, September 21). In poll, Mrs. Clinton makes gain among women from the suburbs. New York Times, A1.
176. Nesbit, D. D. (1988). Videostyle in senate campaigns. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
177. Niven, D., & Zilber, J. (2001a). Do women and men in Congress cultivate different images? Evidence from congressional web sites. Political Communication, 18, 395-405.
178. North, R., Holsti, O., Zaniovich, M., & Zinnes, D. A. (1963) Content analysis: A handbook with applications for the study of international crisis. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
179. Papacharissi, Z., & Rubin, A. M. (2000). Predictors of Internet use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(2), 175-196.
180. Patterson, T. E., & McClure, R. D. (1976). The unseeing eye: The myth of television power in national politics. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
181. PBS.org. (2000, May 30). Online NewsHour: Racing for the Senate. Available at: www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics/jan-june00/nysenate_5-30.html.
182. Pearson, J. C., Turner, L. H., & Todd-Mancillas, W. (1991). Gender & communication (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
183. Pew Research Center for People & the Press (2000a, December 3). Internet election news audience seeks convenience, familiar names. Retrieved December 1, 2003 from http/www.people-press.org.
184. Pew Research Center for People & the Press (2000b, December 21). Some final observations on voter opinions. Retrieved December 1, 2003 from http/www.people-press.org.
185. Pew Research Center for People & the Press (2002a, October 10). Americans thinking about Iraq, but focused on the economy: Midterm election preview. Retrieved December 1, 2003 from http/www.people-press.org.
186. Pew Research Center for People & the Press (2002b, November 5). House voting intentions knotted, national trend not apparent. Retrieved December 1, 2003 from http/www.people-press.org.
187. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press (2003, January 5). Political sites gain, but major news sites still dominant: Modest increase in Internet use for campaign2002. Available at:people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=169.
188. Pinkleton, B. E. (1998). Effects of print political comparative advertising on political decisionmaking and participation. Journal of Communication, 48, 24-36.
189. Pinkleton, B. E., Um, N., & Austin, E.W. (2002). An exploration of the effects of negative political advertising on political decision making. Journal of Advertising, 31(1), 13-25.
190. Procter, D. E., Schenck-Hamlin, W., & Haase, A. (1994). Exploring the role of gender in the development of negative political advertisements. Women & Politics, 14(2), 1-22.
191. Puopolo, S. T. (2001). The web and U.S. Senatorial campaigns 2000. American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 2030-2047.
192. Raney, R. F. (1998, July 30). Politicians woo voters on the Web. The New York Times, p. G1.
193. Rausch, J. D. Jr., Rozell, M. J., & Wilson, H. L. (1999). When women lose: A study of media coverage of two gubernatorial campaigns. Women & Politics, 20, 1-17.
194. Rice, D. (2002, September 17). Dole had double-digit lead, poll shows Bowles trailing in senate race by 14 points, poll director says. Winston-Salem Journal, A1.
195. Richissin, T. (1998, October 4). Sauerbrey substituted one dream for another portrait: Candidate discusses her life-growing up poor, her father's medical problems, and her decision to pursue politics. The Baltimore Sun, p. A1.
196. Riggle, E. D., Miller P., Shields, T., & Johnson, M. S. (1997). Gender stereotypes and decision context in the evaluation of political candidates. Women and Politics, 17, 69-88.
197. Robertson, T. (2000). Sex and the political process: An analysis of sex stereotypes in 1998 senatorial and gubernatorial campaigns. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Norman.
198. Robertson, T., Conley, A., Scymcznska, K., & Thompson, A. (2002). Gender and the media: An investigation of gender, media and politics in the 2000 election. New Jersey Journal of Communication, 10, 104-117.
199. Rosenstone, S. J., Kinder, D. R., Miller, W. E., and the National Election Studies (1997). American National Election Study, 1996: Pre-and Post-Election Survey, computer file, Ann Arbor, MI:University of Michigan, Center for Political Studies (producer), Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (distributor).
200. Rosenwasser, S. M., & Dean, N. G. (1989). Gender role and political office. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 77-85.
201. Rubin, A. M. (1981). An examination of television viewing motivations. Communication Research, 8, 141-165.
202. Sapiro, V. (1981/2). If U.S. Senator Baker were a woman: An experimental study of candidate images. Political Psychology, 3, 61-83.
203. Schenck-Hamlin, W. J., Procter, D. E., & Rumsey, D. J. (2000). The influence of negative advertising frames on political and politician accountability. Human Communication Research, 26(1), 53-74.
204. Selnow, G. W. (1998). Electronic whistle-stops: The impact of the Internet on American politics. Westport, CT: Praeger.
205. Seltzer, R. A., Newman, J., & Leighton, M. V. (1997). Sex as a political variable: Women as candidates and voters in U.S. elections. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
206. Serini, S., Powers, A. & Johnston, S. (1998). Of horse race and policy issues: A study of gender in coverage of a gubernatorial election by two major metropolitan newspapers, Journalism Quarterly 75(1), 194-204.
207. Shepard, S. (2002, September 9). N.C. Senate race soon to escalate: Outcome may foreshadow fate of Bush agenda. The Atlanta-Journal Constitution, 6A.
208. Shiver, J. (1999, January 15). Web clicking with more mainstream Americans. The Los Angeles Times (Business Section), p. 3.
209. Smith, K. B. (1997). When all's fair: Signs of parity in media coverage of female candidates. Political Communication, 14, 71-81.
210. Stromer-Galley, J. (2000). On-line interaction and why candidates avoid it. Journal of Communication, 50, 111-132.
211. Sundar, S.S., Hesser, K. M., Kalyanaraman, S., & Brown, J. (1998, July). The effect of system. New York: Oxford University Press.
212. Szpiech, K. M. (1992, November). The power of feminine style: A critical analysis of Representative Patricia Schroeder's political discourse. Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago, IL.
213. Tedesco, J. C., & Kaid, L. L. (2000, November). Candidate Web sites and voter effects: The Los Angeles Times (Business Section), p. 3.
214. Tedesco, J. C., Miller, J. L., & Spiker, J. A. (1999). Presidential campaigning on the information superhighway: An exploration of content and form. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election (pp. 51-64). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
215. Theimer, S. (2002, November 1). FEC analysis finds North Carolina with highest-spending Senate race; West Virginia costliest for House. Associated Press State & Local Wire [available:www.lexis-nexis.com].
216. Trent, J. S., & Friedenberg, R. V. (2000). Political campaign communication (4th ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger.
217. Trent, J. S., & Sabourin, T. C. (1993). Sex still counts: Women's use of televised advertising during the decade of the 80's. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 21(1), 21-40.
218. Turnbull, A. (2002, August 22). Bowles faults Dole on Social Security. The Morning Star, 2B.
219. Vavreck. L. (2000). How does it all "turnout"? Exposure to attack advertising, campaign interest, and participation in American presidential elections. In L. M. Bartels & L. Vavreck (Eds.), Campaign reform: Insights and evidence (pp. 79-105). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
220. Verba, S., Burns, N., & Schlozman, K. L. (1997). Knowing and caring about politics: Gender and political engagemen. The Journal of Politics, 59(4), 1051-1072; Voter, 47(4), 8-9.
221. The Virginian-Pilot (2002, October 31). Bowles gains ground on Dole in N.C. Senate race, poll shows. Landmark Communications, A5.
222. Wadsworth, A. J., Patterson, P., Kaid, L. L., Cullers, G., Malcomb, D., & Lamirand, L. (1987). "Masculine" vs. "feminine" strategies in political ads: Implications for female candidates. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 15, 77-94.
223. West, D. M. (2001). Air wars: Television advertising in election campaigns, 1952-1992 (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
224. Witt, L., Paget, K. M., & Matthews, G. (1995). Running as a woman: Gender and power in American politics. New York: The Free Press.
225. Wright, G. C., & Berkman, M. B. (1986). Candidates and policy in U.S. Senate elections. American Political Science Review, 80, 569-588.
226. Zurakowski, M. M. (1994). From doctors and lawyers to wives and mothers: Enacting "feminine style" and changing abortion rights arguments. Women's Studies in Communication, 17, 45-68.