Cruising is believing?: Comparing internet and traditional sources on media credibility measures

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 75, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 325-340

  Johnson, Thomas J ^a   Kaye, Barbara K ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0001230258     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909807500208     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Phil Noble, "Net the Vote," Campaigns & Elections, July 1996, 27-33. The authors will be using the terms "Internet" and the "Web" interchangeably throughout the article for the sake of variety, although they are aware that the World Wide Web is only a portion of the larger Internet.
2. Freedom Forum, "News Junkies, News Critics: How Americans Use the News and What They Think About it," available at http:// www.newseum.org/survey/ summary.html, January 1997.
3. Cecilie Gaziano, "How Credible is the Credibility Crisis?" Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 267-78, 375.
4. For instance, see Jupiter Communications, "1997 Consumer Internet Report," available at http://www.jup.com/research/reports/ consumer.shtml; CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "TheCommerceNet/ Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey: Executive Summary," available at http:// www.commerce.net/information/surveys, October 1995; D.L. Hoffman, W.D. Kalsbeek, and T. P. Novak, "Internet Use on the United States: 1995 Baselines for Commercial Development," available at http// www2000.orgsm.vanderbilt.edu/baseline/ 1995.Internet.estimates.html; J. McGavey, "Latest Net Study; 9.5 Million Active Surfers," Inter@ctive Week, January 1996, 9; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey, Matrix Information and Directory Services," available at http://www3.mids.org/ ids3/pr9510.html.
5. For instance, see Jupiter Communications, "1997 Consumer Internet Report," available at http://www.jup.com/research/reports/ consumer.shtml; CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "TheCommerceNet/ Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey: Executive Summary," available at http:// www.commerce.net/information/surveys, October 1995; D.L. Hoffman, W.D. Kalsbeek, and T. P. Novak, "Internet Use on the United States: 1995 Baselines for Commercial Development," available at http// www2000.orgsm.vanderbilt.edu/baseline/ 1995.Internet.estimates.html; J. McGavey, "Latest Net Study; 9.5 Million Active Surfers," Inter@ctive Week, January 1996, 9; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey, Matrix Information and Directory Services," available at http://www3.mids.org/ ids3/pr9510.html.
6. For instance, see Jupiter Communications, "1997 Consumer Internet Report," available at http://www.jup.com/research/reports/ consumer.shtml; CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "TheCommerceNet/ Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey: Executive Summary," available at http:// www.commerce.net/information/surveys, October 1995; D.L. Hoffman, W.D. Kalsbeek, and T. P. Novak, "Internet Use on the United States: 1995 Baselines for Commercial Development," available at http// www2000.orgsm.vanderbilt.edu/baseline/ 1995.Internet.estimates.html; J. McGavey, "Latest Net Study; 9.5 Million Active Surfers," Inter@ctive Week, January 1996, 9; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey, Matrix Information and Directory Services," available at http://www3.mids.org/ ids3/pr9510.html.
7. For instance, see Jupiter Communications, "1997 Consumer Internet Report," available at http://www.jup.com/research/reports/ consumer.shtml; CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "TheCommerceNet/ Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey: Executive Summary," available at http:// www.commerce.net/information/surveys, October 1995; D.L. Hoffman, W.D. Kalsbeek, and T. P. Novak, "Internet Use on the United States: 1995 Baselines for Commercial Development," available at http// www2000.orgsm.vanderbilt.edu/baseline/ 1995.Internet.estimates.html; J. McGavey, "Latest Net Study; 9.5 Million Active Surfers," Inter@ctive Week, January 1996, 9; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey, Matrix Information and Directory Services," available at http://www3.mids.org/ ids3/pr9510.html.
8. For instance, see Jupiter Communications, "1997 Consumer Internet Report," available at http://www.jup.com/research/reports/ consumer.shtml; CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "TheCommerceNet/ Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey: Executive Summary," available at http:// www.commerce.net/information/surveys, October 1995; D.L. Hoffman, W.D. Kalsbeek, and T. P. Novak, "Internet Use on the United States: 1995 Baselines for Commercial Development," available at http// www2000.orgsm.vanderbilt.edu/baseline/ 1995.Internet.estimates.html; J. McGavey, "Latest Net Study; 9.5 Million Active Surfers," Inter@ctive Week, January 1996, 9; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey, Matrix Information and Directory Services," available at http://www3.mids.org/ ids3/pr9510.html.
9. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
10. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
11. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
12. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
13. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
14. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
15. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
16. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
17. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility: Building Reader Trust, conducted by MORI Research Inc., 1985; Times Mirror, The People & the Press: A Time Mirror Investigation of Public Attitudes Toward the News Media, conducted by Gallup in collaboration with Michael J. Robinson (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1986); The People and the Press: Part 5, conducted by the Gallup Organization (Washington, DC: Times Mirror Company, 1989); The People and the Press: Part 3 (Los Angeles: Times Mirror Company, 1987); D. Charles Whitney, The Media and the People: Soundings from Two Communities (New York: Gannett Center for Media Studies, Columbia University, 1985); David Shaw, "Public and the Press - Two Viewpoints," Los Angeles Times, 11 August, 1985, sec. A, pp. 1, 12-13; Associated Press Managing Editors Association, Journalists and Readers: Bridging the Credibility Gap, conducted by MORI Research, Inc. (San Bernardino, CA: The Sun, October 1985); William Schneider and I.A. Lewis, "Views on the News," Public Opinion, August-September 1985, 6-11, 58-59; Ralph S. Izard, "Public Confidence in the News Media," Journalism Quarterly 62 (spring 1985): 247-55.
18. Gaziano, "How Credible is the Credibility Crisis?"; Times Mirror, The People & the Press, 1986.
19. For instance, see Michael D. Slater and Donna Rouner, "How Message Evaluation and Source Attributes May Influence Credibility Assessment and Belief Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 974-91; Erica Weintraub Austin and Qingwen Dong, "Source v. Content Effects on Judgments of News Believability," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 973-83; Keith Stamm and Ric Dube, "The Relationship of Attitudinal Components to Trust in Media," Communication Research 21 (February 1994): 105-123; Albert Gunther, "Attitude Extremity and Trust in Media," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 279-87.
20. For instance, see Michael D. Slater and Donna Rouner, "How Message Evaluation and Source Attributes May Influence Credibility Assessment and Belief Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 974-91; Erica Weintraub Austin and Qingwen Dong, "Source v. Content Effects on Judgments of News Believability," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 973-83; Keith Stamm and Ric Dube, "The Relationship of Attitudinal Components to Trust in Media," Communication Research 21 (February 1994): 105-123; Albert Gunther, "Attitude Extremity and Trust in Media," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 279-87.
21. For instance, see Michael D. Slater and Donna Rouner, "How Message Evaluation and Source Attributes May Influence Credibility Assessment and Belief Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 974-91; Erica Weintraub Austin and Qingwen Dong, "Source v. Content Effects on Judgments of News Believability," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 973-83; Keith Stamm and Ric Dube, "The Relationship of Attitudinal Components to Trust in Media," Communication Research 21 (February 1994): 105-123; Albert Gunther, "Attitude Extremity and Trust in Media," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 279-87.
22. For instance, see Michael D. Slater and Donna Rouner, "How Message Evaluation and Source Attributes May Influence Credibility Assessment and Belief Change," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (winter 1996): 974-91; Erica Weintraub Austin and Qingwen Dong, "Source v. Content Effects on Judgments of News Believability," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 973-83; Keith Stamm and Ric Dube, "The Relationship of Attitudinal Components to Trust in Media," Communication Research 21 (February 1994): 105-123; Albert Gunther, "Attitude Extremity and Trust in Media," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 279-87.
23. "Political Institutions, the Press, and Education Show Big Declines," The Public Perspective, February/March 1997, 4.
24. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "TV News Viewership Declines: Network TV News Credibility Slips," available at http: // www.people-press.org/medmor.htm, May 1996. Another Pew Charitable Trusts survey found that favorability ratings for network news have fallen from 82% to 73% from 1992 to 1997 (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "Fewer Favor Press Scrutiny of Political Leaders: Press 'Unfair, Inaccurate and Pushy,'" available at http://www.people-press.org/ 97medrpt.htm).
25. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "TV News Viewership Declines: Network TV News Credibility Slips," available at http: // www.people-press.org/medmor.htm, May 1996. Another Pew Charitable Trusts survey found that favorability ratings for network news have fallen from 82% to 73% from 1992 to 1997 (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "Fewer Favor Press Scrutiny of Political Leaders: Press 'Unfair, Inaccurate and Pushy,'" available at http://www.people-press.org/ 97medrpt.htm).
26. The 1997 Freedom Forum study ("News Junkies, News Critics") found that 63% said negative coverage was a major problem, while 52% said bias and 63% said bowing to special interests were serious problems. The 1997 Pew Charitable Trusts study ("Fewer Favor Press Scrutiny") found that 67% said press coverage tends to favor one side.
27. Dwight J. Brady, "Cyberdemocracy and Perceptions of Politics: An Experimental Analysis of Political Communication on the World Wide Web" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, IL, 1996).
28. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "One-in-Ten Voters Online for Campaign '96," available at http://www.people-press.org/ tec96-1.htm, November 1996.
29. John W. Mashek with Lawrence T. McGill and Adam Clayton Powell III, Lethargy '96: How the Media Covered a Listless Campaign (Arlington, VA: The Freedom Forum, 1997). It should be noted, however, that these responses were among those who used the medium and felt comfortable enough to rate it on fairness and bias. Roper found that 70% did not use the Internet and another 16% did not know if it was fair and unbiased. Therefore, the 54% fairness rating was based on the 14% of the survey who used the Internet and expressed an opinion on it. Also, while this study found that the public rated local media lower than national ones, some studies find the opposite to be true (Andrew Kohut and Robert C. Toth, "The Central Conundrum: How Can the People Like What They Distrust?," The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3 [winter 1998]: 110-117).
30. John W. Mashek with Lawrence T. McGill and Adam Clayton Powell III, Lethargy '96: How the Media Covered a Listless Campaign (Arlington, VA: The Freedom Forum, 1997). It should be noted, however, that these responses were among those who used the medium and felt comfortable enough to rate it on fairness and bias. Roper found that 70% did not use the Internet and another 16% did not know if it was fair and unbiased. Therefore, the 54% fairness rating was based on the 14% of the survey who used the Internet and expressed an opinion on it. Also, while this study found that the public rated local media lower than national ones, some studies find the opposite to be true (Andrew Kohut and Robert C. Toth, "The Central Conundrum: How Can the People Like What They Distrust?," The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 3 [winter 1998]: 110-117).
31. Paul Starobin, "On the Square," National Journal, 25 May 1996, 1145-1149; Andrew Calabrese and Mark Borchert, "Prospects for Electronic Democracy in the United States: Rethinking Communication and Social Policy," Media, Culture and Society 18 (April 1996): 249-68.
32. Paul Starobin, "On the Square," National Journal, 25 May 1996, 1145-1149; Andrew Calabrese and Mark Borchert, "Prospects for Electronic Democracy in the United States: Rethinking Communication and Social Policy," Media, Culture and Society 18 (April 1996): 249-68.
33. Frank Houston, "The Virtual Trail," Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 1996, 26-28; Pam Greenberg, "Political Possibilities," State Legislatures 22 (March 1996): 19-23.
34. Frank Houston, "The Virtual Trail," Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 1996, 26-28; Pam Greenberg, "Political Possibilities," State Legislatures 22 (March 1996): 19-23.
35. Slater and Rouner, "Message Evaluation and Source Attributes"; Austin and Dong, "Source v. Content Effects."
36. Slater and Rouner, "Message Evaluation and Source Attributes"; Austin and Dong, "Source v. Content Effects."
37. Gordon Franke, "Participatory Political Discussion on the Internet," Votes and Opinions 2 (July/August 1996): 22-25.
38. Ronald Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 58 (winter 1981): 635-38; Michael J. Robinson and Andrew Kohut, "Believability and the Press," Public Opinion Quarterly 52 (summer 1988): 174-89; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People.
39. Ronald Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 58 (winter 1981): 635-38; Michael J. Robinson and Andrew Kohut, "Believability and the Press," Public Opinion Quarterly 52 (summer 1988): 174-89; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People.
40. Ronald Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 58 (winter 1981): 635-38; Michael J. Robinson and Andrew Kohut, "Believability and the Press," Public Opinion Quarterly 52 (summer 1988): 174-89; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People.
41. Ronald Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 58 (winter 1981): 635-38; Michael J. Robinson and Andrew Kohut, "Believability and the Press," Public Opinion Quarterly 52 (summer 1988): 174-89; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People.
42. "American Internet User Survey Finds More than 41.5 Million U.S. Adults are Actively Using the Internet," available at http:// www.cyberdialogue.com/marketing/, 27 January 1998; Hoffman, Kalsbeek and Lovak, "Internet and Web Use."
43. "American Internet User Survey Finds More than 41.5 Million U.S. Adults are Actively Using the Internet," available at http:// www.cyberdialogue.com/marketing/, 27 January 1998; Hoffman, Kalsbeek and Lovak, "Internet and Web Use."
44. Guido H. Stempel III and Thomas Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences in a Changing Media Environment," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (autumn 1996): 549-58; Georgia Institute of Technology's Graphic, Visualization and Usability Center, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey," available at http:// www.gvu.gatech.edu/user_surveys/survey-1997-04/#exec; David S. Birdsell, Douglas Muzzio, Humphrey Taylor and David Krane, "A New Political Marketplace: The Web Snares Voters," The Public Perspective, June/July 1996, 33; "Who's Surfing the Net?" The Public Perspective, June/July 1996.
45. Guido H. Stempel III and Thomas Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences in a Changing Media Environment," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (autumn 1996): 549-58; Georgia Institute of Technology's Graphic, Visualization and Usability Center, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey," available at http:// www.gvu.gatech.edu/user_surveys/survey-1997-04/#exec; David S. Birdsell, Douglas Muzzio, Humphrey Taylor and David Krane, "A New Political Marketplace: The Web Snares Voters," The Public Perspective, June/July 1996, 33; "Who's Surfing the Net?" The Public Perspective, June/July 1996.
46. Guido H. Stempel III and Thomas Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences in a Changing Media Environment," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (autumn 1996): 549-58; Georgia Institute of Technology's Graphic, Visualization and Usability Center, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey," available at http:// www.gvu.gatech.edu/user_surveys/survey-1997-04/#exec; David S. Birdsell, Douglas Muzzio, Humphrey Taylor and David Krane, "A New Political Marketplace: The Web Snares Voters," The Public Perspective, June/July 1996, 33; "Who's Surfing the Net?" The Public Perspective, June/July 1996.
47. Guido H. Stempel III and Thomas Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences in a Changing Media Environment," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (autumn 1996): 549-58; Georgia Institute of Technology's Graphic, Visualization and Usability Center, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey," available at http:// www.gvu.gatech.edu/user_surveys/survey-1997-04/#exec; David S. Birdsell, Douglas Muzzio, Humphrey Taylor and David Krane, "A New Political Marketplace: The Web Snares Voters," The Public Perspective, June/July 1996, 33; "Who's Surfing the Net?" The Public Perspective, June/July 1996.
48. Rebekah V. Bromley and Dorothy Bowles, "Impact of Internet on Use of Traditional News Media," Newspaper Research Journal 16 (spring 1995): 14-27; Barbara K. Kaye, "Uses and Gratifications of the World Wide Web: From Couch Potato to Web Potato," New Jersey Journal of Communication 6 (spring 1998): 21-40 ; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey." Some studies suggest, however, that Internet use has cut into time for other media, particularly television (WebCensus, "Media Usage and the Internet," available at http:/ /webcensus.com/result.html, March 1998; Pew Charitable Trust, "TV News Viewership Declines").
49. Rebekah V. Bromley and Dorothy Bowles, "Impact of Internet on Use of Traditional News Media," Newspaper Research Journal 16 (spring 1995): 14-27; Barbara K. Kaye, "Uses and Gratifications of the World Wide Web: From Couch Potato to Web Potato," New Jersey Journal of Communication 6 (spring 1998): 21-40 ; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey." Some studies suggest, however, that Internet use has cut into time for other media, particularly television (WebCensus, "Media Usage and the Internet," available at http:/ /webcensus.com/result.html, March 1998; Pew Charitable Trust, "TV News Viewership Declines").
50. Rebekah V. Bromley and Dorothy Bowles, "Impact of Internet on Use of Traditional News Media," Newspaper Research Journal 16 (spring 1995): 14-27; Barbara K. Kaye, "Uses and Gratifications of the World Wide Web: From Couch Potato to Web Potato," New Jersey Journal of Communication 6 (spring 1998): 21-40 ; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey." Some studies suggest, however, that Internet use has cut into time for other media, particularly television (WebCensus, "Media Usage and the Internet," available at http:/ /webcensus.com/result.html, March 1998; Pew Charitable Trust, "TV News Viewership Declines").
51. Rebekah V. Bromley and Dorothy Bowles, "Impact of Internet on Use of Traditional News Media," Newspaper Research Journal 16 (spring 1995): 14-27; Barbara K. Kaye, "Uses and Gratifications of the World Wide Web: From Couch Potato to Web Potato," New Jersey Journal of Communication 6 (spring 1998): 21-40 ; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey." Some studies suggest, however, that Internet use has cut into time for other media, particularly television (WebCensus, "Media Usage and the Internet," available at http:/ /webcensus.com/result.html, March 1998; Pew Charitable Trust, "TV News Viewership Declines").
52. "Cybercampaigns Preach to the Choir," Media and Campaigns 96 Briefing No. 1 (New York: Media Studies Center, 1996), 8-10.
53. Bruce H. Westley and Werner J. Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 41 (summer 1964): 325-35; Richard F. Carter and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television: Which Do You Believe?," Journalism Quarterly 42 (winter 1965): 29-34; Bradley S. Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability: Some Multiple Correlates," Journalism Quarterly 43 (winter 1966): 665-70, 732; People and the Press: Part 3; Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis." The survey for the Pew Research Center ("TV News Viewership Declines"), however, indicates that declines in news credibility ratings were highest among young adults.
54. Bruce H. Westley and Werner J. Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 41 (summer 1964): 325-35; Richard F. Carter and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television: Which Do You Believe?," Journalism Quarterly 42 (winter 1965): 29-34; Bradley S. Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability: Some Multiple Correlates," Journalism Quarterly 43 (winter 1966): 665-70, 732; People and the Press: Part 3; Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis." The survey for the Pew Research Center ("TV News Viewership Declines"), however, indicates that declines in news credibility ratings were highest among young adults.
55. Bruce H. Westley and Werner J. Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 41 (summer 1964): 325-35; Richard F. Carter and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television: Which Do You Believe?," Journalism Quarterly 42 (winter 1965): 29-34; Bradley S. Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability: Some Multiple Correlates," Journalism Quarterly 43 (winter 1966): 665-70, 732; People and the Press: Part 3; Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis." The survey for the Pew Research Center ("TV News Viewership Declines"), however, indicates that declines in news credibility ratings were highest among young adults.
56. Bruce H. Westley and Werner J. Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 41 (summer 1964): 325-35; Richard F. Carter and Bradley S. Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television: Which Do You Believe?," Journalism Quarterly 42 (winter 1965): 29-34; Bradley S. Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability: Some Multiple Correlates," Journalism Quarterly 43 (winter 1966): 665-70, 732; People and the Press: Part 3; Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis." The survey for the Pew Research Center ("TV News Viewership Declines"), however, indicates that declines in news credibility ratings were highest among young adults.
57. Stempel and Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences"; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey"; Birdsell, Muzzio, Taylor, and Krane, "A New Political Marketplace"; "Who's Surfing the Net?"
58. Stempel and Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences"; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey"; Birdsell, Muzzio, Taylor, and Krane, "A New Political Marketplace"; "Who's Surfing the Net?"
59. Stempel and Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences"; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey"; Birdsell, Muzzio, Taylor, and Krane, "A New Political Marketplace"; "Who's Surfing the Net?"
60. Stempel and Hargrove, "Mass Media Audiences"; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey"; Birdsell, Muzzio, Taylor, and Krane, "A New Political Marketplace"; "Who's Surfing the Net?"
61. Thomas J. Johnson, "Exploring Media Credibility: How Media and Nonmedia Workers Judged Media Performance in Iran/Contra," Journalism Quarterly 70 (spring 1993): 87-97; Cecilie Gaziano, "News People's Ideology and the Credibility Debate," Newspaper Research Journal 9 (fall 1987): 1-18.
62. Thomas J. Johnson, "Exploring Media Credibility: How Media and Nonmedia Workers Judged Media Performance in Iran/Contra," Journalism Quarterly 70 (spring 1993): 87-97; Cecilie Gaziano, "News People's Ideology and the Credibility Debate," Newspaper Research Journal 9 (fall 1987): 1-18.
63. "Who's Surfing the Net?" Our study also suggests that there were an equal proportion of Republicans (32%) and Democrats (34%).
64. GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey."
65. Douglas Muzzio and David Birdsell, "The 1996 'Net Voter," The Public Perspective, December/January 1997; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey."
66. Douglas Muzzio and David Birdsell, "The 1996 'Net Voter," The Public Perspective, December/January 1997; GVU, "GVU's 7th WWW User Survey."
67. Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Building Reader Trust.
68. Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Building Reader Trust.
69. Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Building Reader Trust.
70. Wayne Wanta and Yu-Wei Hu, "The Effects of Credibility, Reliance, and Exposure on Media Agenda-Setting: A Path Analysis Model," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 90-98; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Building Reader Trust.
71. Tony Rimmer and David Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 28-36, 44; Carter and Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television." But while people judge their preferred medium as more credible, it does not necessarily mean they view it as credible. For instance, Rimmer and Weaver ("Different Questions, Different Answers?") found that only 22% of those who said television was their top choice for local news gave television a high credibility rating. Similarly, Westley and Severin ("Some Correlates") discovered that 38% of heavy radio listeners judged radio as credible and scores for other media tended to be below 50%.
72. Tony Rimmer and David Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 28-36, 44; Carter and Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television." But while people judge their preferred medium as more credible, it does not necessarily mean they view it as credible. For instance, Rimmer and Weaver ("Different Questions, Different Answers?") found that only 22% of those who said television was their top choice for local news gave television a high credibility rating. Similarly, Westley and Severin ("Some Correlates") discovered that 38% of heavy radio listeners judged radio as credible and scores for other media tended to be below 50%.
73. Tony Rimmer and David Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 28-36, 44; Carter and Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television." But while people judge their preferred medium as more credible, it does not necessarily mean they view it as credible. For instance, Rimmer and Weaver ("Different Questions, Different Answers?") found that only 22% of those who said television was their top choice for local news gave television a high credibility rating. Similarly, Westley and Severin ("Some Correlates") discovered that 38% of heavy radio listeners judged radio as credible and scores for other media tended to be below 50%.
74. Tony Rimmer and David Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 64 (spring 1987): 28-36, 44; Carter and Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television." But while people judge their preferred medium as more credible, it does not necessarily mean they view it as credible. For instance, Rimmer and Weaver ("Different Questions, Different Answers?") found that only 22% of those who said television was their top choice for local news gave television a high credibility rating. Similarly, Westley and Severin ("Some Correlates") discovered that 38% of heavy radio listeners judged radio as credible and scores for other media tended to be below 50%.
75. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
76. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
77. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
78. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
79. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
80. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
81. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
82. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
83. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
84. Burns W. Roper, Changing Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media, 1959-1976 (New York: Television Information Office, 1977); Harvey K. Jacobson, "Mass Media Believability: A Study of Receiver Judgments," Journalism Quarterly 46 (spring 1969): 20-28; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility." However, studies suggest that those who actively seek out information are more likely to see newspapers as credible (Ronald Mulder, "Media Credibility: A Uses-Gratifications Approach," Journalism Quarterly 57 [autumn 1980]: 474-77). Also, studies indicate that those who are highly educated, older and male tend to be more likely to judge newspapers as credible than younger, less educated females (Mulder, "Log-Linear Analysis"; Carter and Greenberg "Newspapers or Television"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates"; Pew Charitable Trusts, "TV News Viewership Declines").
85. CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "The CommerceNet/Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey"; Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, "Internet Use on the United States"; McGavey, "Latest Net Study"; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey."
86. CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "The CommerceNet/Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey"; Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, "Internet Use on the United States"; McGavey, "Latest Net Study"; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey."
87. CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "The CommerceNet/Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey"; Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, "Internet Use on the United States"; McGavey, "Latest Net Study"; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey."
88. CommerceNet and Neilsen Research, "The CommerceNet/Neilsen Internet Demographics Survey"; Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, "Internet Use on the United States"; McGavey, "Latest Net Study"; MIDS, "Third MIDS Internet Demographic Survey."
89. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, "Campaign '96 Gets Lower Grades from Voters," available at http: //www.people-press.org/ postrpt.htm, November 1996.
90. The Internet poses a unique set of problems in guaranteeing a random sample of respondents. The Web has no central registry of users and e-mail : addresses to create a sampling frame. Response rates cannot be calculated because there is no way to know how many individuals may have seen the survey or its links, but refused to participate. Because participation is voluntary, those who choose to complete a cybersurvey may differ from those who choose not to participate. Voluntary participants may be more interested, informed, and concerned about the survey topic and typically hold viewpoints which are stronger and more extreme than other individuals. Thus, results may not be able to be generalized to the population (Barbara K. Kaye and Thomas J. Johnson, "Taming the Cyber Frontier: Techniques for Improving Online Surveys" [paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, IL 1997]; Wei Wu and David Weaver, "Online Democracy or Online Demagoguery - Public Opinion 'Polls' on the Internet," Harvard International Journal of Press/ Politics 2 [fall 1997]: 71-86).
91. The Internet poses a unique set of problems in guaranteeing a random sample of respondents. The Web has no central registry of users and e-mail : addresses to create a sampling frame. Response rates cannot be calculated because there is no way to know how many individuals may have seen the survey or its links, but refused to participate. Because participation is voluntary, those who choose to complete a cybersurvey may differ from those who choose not to participate. Voluntary participants may be more interested, informed, and concerned about the survey topic and typically hold viewpoints which are stronger and more extreme than other individuals. Thus, results may not be able to be generalized to the population (Barbara K. Kaye and Thomas J. Johnson, "Taming the Cyber Frontier: Techniques for Improving Online Surveys" [paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwest Association for Public Opinion Research, Chicago, IL 1997]; Wei Wu and David Weaver, "Online Democracy or Online Demagoguery -Public Opinion 'Polls' on the Internet," Harvard International Journal of Press/ Politics 2 [fall 1997]: 71-86).
92. Like other surveys, this one suggests the Internet is dominated by young white males of high education and high socioeconomic status. The average age in the survey is 31.2 while the gender ratio is 75.5% male and 24.5% female. Six out of ten have a college degree or higher and slightly less than half (45.1%) report an annual income between $25,001-$65,000. Finally, almost nine out of ten (88.3%) are white. Both the online GVU 7th WWW User Survey and the FIND/SVP American Internet User study, which was conducted by telephone, found that the average Internet user is in his 30s (35.2 and 36.5 years old respectively) and is male (68.7% in the GVU survey and 64.1% in the FIND/SVP study). More than half (54.2%) of respondents in the GVU study had a college education or higher and the average income was $58,000. Finally, the clear majority of respondents in both polls identified themselves as white. Finally, our finding that the typical Internet user spends an average of 13.2 hours on the Net compares favorably with recent studies that put the number at 13.6 ("What's Your Daily Dose?," PC Magazine, 18 November 1997, 9).
93. Mark Douglas West, "Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility: A Covariance Structure Modeling Approach," Journalism Quarterly 71 (spring 1994): 159-68.
94. Cecilie Gaziano and Kristin McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 63 (autumn 1986): 451-62.
95. Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 567-74, 588;
96. Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 567-74, 588; John Newhagen and Clifford Nass, "Differential Criteria for Evaluating Credibility of Newspapers and TV News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 277-284; Gaziano and McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility;" West, "Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility." While this study employed measures that have been used in past studies (i.e., believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth), question wordings were not always identical to previous research.
97. Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 567-74, 588; John Newhagen and Clifford Nass, "Differential Criteria for Evaluating Credibility of Newspapers and TV News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 277-284; Gaziano and McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility;" West, "Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility." While this study employed measures that have been used in past studies (i.e., believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth), question wordings were not always identical to previous research.
98. Philip Meyer, "Defining and Measuring Credibility of Newspapers: Developing an Index," Journalism Quarterly 65 (fall 1988): 567-74, 588; John Newhagen and Clifford Nass, "Differential Criteria for Evaluating Credibility of Newspapers and TV News," Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 277-284; Gaziano and McGrath, "Measuring the Concept of Credibility;" West, "Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility." While this study employed measures that have been used in past studies (i.e., believability, fairness, accuracy, and depth), question wordings were not always identical to previous research.
99. Wanta and Hu, "The Effects of Credibility"; Rimmer and Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers?";
100. Wanta and Hu, "The Effects of Credibility"; Rimmer and Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers?";
101. Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility";
102. Carter and Greenberg, "Newspapers or Television";
103. Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability";
104. American Society of Newspaper Editors, Building Reader Trust. 40.
105. Wanta and Hu, "Effects of Credibility";
106. Rimmer and Weaver, "Different Questions."
107. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
108. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
109. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
110. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
111. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
112. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
113. Mulder, "A Log-Linear Analysis"; American Society of Newspaper Editors, Newspaper Credibility; Times Mirror, The People & the Press; Whitney, The Media and the People; Carter and Greenberg, "Which Do You Believe?"; Greenberg, "Media Use and Believability"; Westley and Severin, "Some Correlates of Media Credibility."
114. Respondents were asked to record their age on their last birthday. They were also asked what is the highest grade or year in school they have completed (less than high school, high school grad, some college, four year college degree, master's degree, Ph.D. degree, other) and to estimate their annual income for 1996 (less than 10,000, 10,001-25,000, 25,001-40,000,40,001-65,000, 65,001-80,000, 80,001-95,000, more than 95,000).
115. Eliminating the "don't knows" as well as the missing values, however, significantly reduced the sample size for several variables, particularly online media. For instance, 168 people rated the credibility of online magazines and just more than 200 judged credibility for online candidate literature and online issue sources and 232 people rated the credibility of online newspapers. Among traditionally-delivered sources, eliminating don't knows and missing values reduced the sample size from 235 for issue-oriented sources to 297 for newspaper ones.
116. John Perry Barlow, "The Netizen: The Powers That Were," Wired, September 1996, 53-56, 196-199.
117. Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "A Vehicle for Engagement or a Haven for the Disaffected?: Internet Use, Political Alienation and Voter Participation," in Engaging the Public: How the Government and Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy, ed. Thomas J. Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Kevin A. Hill and John E. Hughes, Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Jon Katz, "The Digital Citizen," Wired, December 1997, 68-82, 274-75.
118. Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "A Vehicle for Engagement or a Haven for the Disaffected?: Internet Use, Political Alienation and Voter Participation," in Engaging the Public: How the Government and Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy, ed. Thomas J. Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Kevin A. Hill and John E. Hughes, Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Jon Katz, "The Digital Citizen," Wired, December 1997, 68-82, 274-75.
119. Thomas J. Johnson and Barbara K. Kaye, "A Vehicle for Engagement or a Haven for the Disaffected?: Internet Use, Political Alienation and Voter Participation," in Engaging the Public: How the Government and Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy, ed. Thomas J. Johnson, Carol E. Hays, and Scott P. Hays (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Kevin A. Hill and John E. Hughes, Cyberpolitics: Citizen Activism in the Age of the Internet (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998); Jon Katz, "The Digital Citizen," Wired, December 1997, 68-82, 274-75.
120. Wanta and Hu, "The Effects of Credibility."
121. Rimmer and Weaver, "Different Questions, Different Answers?"