Malik goes to school: Examining the language skills of African American students from preschool-5th grade

Malik Goes to School: Examining the Language Skills of African American Students From Preschool-5th Grade

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-175

  Craig, Holly K ^a   Washington, Julie A ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84909229408     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9781410615602     Document Type: Book

References (341)

1. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1983). Position statement on social dialects. Asha, 25 (9), 24.
2. Bereiter, C., & Englemann, S. (1966). Teaching disadvantaged children in the preschool. EngIewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
3. Committee on CCC Language Statement (1974). Students' rights to their own language. College Composition and Communication 25 (special issue). Champaign-Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
4. Cukor-Avila, P. (2002). She say, she go, she be like: Verbs of quotation over time in African American Vernacular English. American Speech, 77, 3-31.
5. Fasold, R. W. (1972). Tense marking in Black English. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
6. Fasold, R. W., & Wolfram, W. (1970). Some linguistic features of Negro dialect. In R. W. Fasold & R. W. Shuy (Eds.), Teaching standard English in the inner city, Volume 6 (pp. 41-86). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
7. Hurst, C. G. (1965). Psychological correlates of dialectolalia. Washington, DC: Howard University.
8. Labov, W., Cohen, P., Robins, C., & Lewis, J. (1968). A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. Cooperative Research Project No. 3288. Washington, DC: Cooperative Research Program of the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
9. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge.
10. Seymour, H. N., Roeper, T., & de Villiers, J. (1999). Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
11. Wolfram, W. (1969). Sociolinguistic description of Detroit Negro Speech. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
12. Abati, R. (1997, January 25). To an African, "Ebonics" or Black English sounds foreign. The Detroit News
13. Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
14. Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox: Academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor's degree attainment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
15. Adler, S. (1992). Multicultural communication skills in the classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
16. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Demographic Profile of the ASHA constituents. Retrieved September 23, 2004, from http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/E3207463-1E07-402B-BDC2-A835A738EB0C/0/13601_1.pdf
17. Anderson-Yockel, J., & Haynes, W. (1994). Joint picture-book reading strategies in working-class African American and white mother-toddler dyads. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 37, 583-593.
18. Aram, D., & Nation, J. (1975). Patterns of language behavior in children with developmental language disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 18, 229-241.
19. Artiles, A. J., & Zamora-Duran, G. (1997). Disproportionate representation: A contentious and unresolved predicament. In A. J. Artiles & G. Zamora-Duran (Eds.), Reducing disproportionate representation of culturally diverse students in special and gifted education. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
20. Bailey, G., Maynor, N., & Cukor-Avila, P. (Eds.). (1991). The emergence of Black English: Texts and commentary. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
21. Baratz, J. C. (1970). Educational considerations for teaching standard English to Negro children. In R. W. Fasold & R. W. Shuy (Eds.), Teaching Standard English in the inner-city (pp. 223-231). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
22. Barnett, W. S. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. The Future of Children, 5, 25-50.
23. Baron, D. (2000). Ebonics and the politics of English. World Englishes, 19, 5-19.
24. Bartel, N. R., & Axelrod, J. (1973). Nonstandard English usage and reading ability in Black junior high students. Exceptional Children, 39, 653-655.
25. Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
26. Bates, E., & MacWhinney, B. (1989). Functionalism and the competition model. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates (Eds.), The crosslinguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 3-73). New York: Cambridge University Press.
27. Battle, D. E. (1993). Communication disorders in multicultural populations. Boston: Andover Medical Publishers.
28. Battle, D. E. (1996). Language learning and use by African American children. Topics in Language Disorders, 16, 22-37.
29. Baugh, J. (1983). A survey of Afro-American English. Annual Review of Anthropology, 12, 335-354.
30. Beilin, H., & Sack, H. (1975). The passive: Linguistic and psychological theory. In H. Beilin (Ed.), Studies in the cognitive basis of language development (pp. 6-83). New York: Academic Press.
31. Berko-Gleason, J. (2001). The development of language (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
32. Bever, T. (1970). The cognitive base for linguistic structures. In J. Hayes (Ed.), Cognition and the development of language (pp. 279-362). New York: Wiley.
33. Biddle, B. J., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). Small class size and its effects. Educational Leadership, 59 (5), 12-23.
34. Blake, I. K. (1984). Language development in working-class Black children: An examination of form, content, and use. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York.
35. Bloom, L., & Lahey, M. (1978). Language development and language disorders. New York: Wiley.
36. Bountress, N. G. (1983). Effect of segregated and integrated educational settings upon selected dialectal features. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 71-78.
37. Bowey, J. A. (1986). Syntactic awareness in relation to reading skill and ongoing reading comprehension monitoring. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41, 282-299.
38. Bracken, B. A. (1986). Bracken concept development program. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
39. Braswell, J. S., Daane, M. C., & Grigg, W. S. (2003). The nation's report card: Mathematics highlights 2003 (NCES 2004-451). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
40. Braswell, J. S., Lutkus, A. D., Grigg, W. S., Santapau, S. L., Tay-Lim, B. S. -H., & Johnson, M. S. (2001). The nation's report card: Mathematics 2000 (NCES 2001-517). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics.
41. Bridgeforth, C. (1984). The development of language functions among Black children from working class families. Paper presented at the pre-session of the 35th Annual Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
42. Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P. K., & Sealand, N. (1993). Do neighborhoods influence child and adolescent development? American Journal of Sociology, 99, 353-395.
43. Brown v. Board of Education. (1954). 347 U.S. 483.
44. Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
45. Brown, R., Cazden, C., & Bellugi, U. (1968). The child's grammar from I to III. In J. P. Hill (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology: Vol. 38 (pp. 28-73). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
46. Brown, I. S., & Felton, R. H. (1990). Effects of instruction on beginning reading skills in children at risk for reading disability. Reading and Writing, 2, 223-241.
47. Bryant, D. M., Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., & Clifford, R. M. (1993). Evaluation of public preschool programs in North Carolina: Final report. Chapel Hill, NC: Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center.
48. Bryk, A., Raudenbush, S., & Congdon, R. (1996). HLM hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling with the HLM/2L and HLM/3L programs. Chicago: Scientific Software International.
49. Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J., Riggins, R., Zeisel, S., Neebe, E., & Bryant, D. (2000). Relating quality of center-based child care to early cognitive and language development longitudinally. Child Development, 71, 339-357.
50. Bus, A. G. (2001). Joint caregiver-child storybook reading: A route to literacy development. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 179-191). New York: Guilford Press.
51. Bus, A. G., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pelligrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65, 1-21.
52. Campbell, T., Dollaghan, C., Needleman, H., & Janosky, J. (1997). Reducing bias in language assessment: Processing-dependent measures. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 519-525.
53. Campbell, F. A., & Ramey, C. T. (1995). Cognitive and school outcomes for high-risk African-American students at middle adolescence. Positive effects of early intervention. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 743-772.
54. Catts, H. W. (1991). Facilitating phonological awareness: Role of speech-language pathologists. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 196-203.
55. Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331-361.
56. Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V. A., & Baldwin, L. E. (1990). The reading crisis: Why poor children fall behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
57. Chapman, R. (1988). Language acquisition in the child. In N. Lass, L. McReynolds, J. Northern, & D. Yoder (Eds.), Handbook of speech-language pathology and audiology (pp. 120-124). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: B. C. Decker.
58. Chamberlain, C., & Madeiros-Landurand, P. (1991). Practical considerations for the assessment of LEP students with special needs. In E. V. Hamayan & J. S. Damico (Eds.), Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students (pp. 111-156). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
59. Champion, T. B. (2003). Understanding storytelling among African American children: A journey from Africa to America. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
60. Champion, T. B., Seymour, H., & Camarata, S. (1995). Narrative discourse of African American children. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 5, 333-352.
61. Charity, A. H., Scarborough, H. S., & Griffin, D. M. (2004). Familiarity with "School English" in African-American children and its relation to early reading achievement. Child Development, 75, 1340-1356.
62. Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton.
63. Cole, L. (1980). Developmental analysis of social dialect features in the spontaneous language of preschool Black children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston.
64. Cole, P. A., & Taylor, O. L. (1990). Performance of working-class African American children on three tests of articulation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 21, 171-176.
65. Coles-White, D. (2004). Negative concord in child African American English: Implications for Specific Language Impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 212-222.
66. Coley, R. J. (2002). An uneven start: Indicators of inequality in school readiness. Policy information report. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED466473)
67. Connor, C. M. (2002). Preschool children and teachers talking together: The influence of child, family, teacher, and classroom characteristics on children's developing literacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
68. Connor, C. M., Son, S. -H., Hindman, A. H., & Morrison, F. J. (2005). Teacher qualifications, classroom practices, family characteristics, and preschool experience: Complex effects on first graders' vocabulary and early reading outcomes. Manuscript submitted for publication.
69. Crago, M., & Paradis, J. (2003). Two of a kind? The importance of commonalities and variation across languages and learners. In Y. Levy & J. Schaeffer (Eds.), Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of Specific Language Impairment (pp. 97-110). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
70. Craig, H. K. (1995). Pragmatic impairments. In P. Fletcher & B. MacWhinney (Eds.), Handbook of child language (pp. 623-640). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
71. Craig, H. K. (1996). The challenges of conducting language research with African American children. In A. G. Kamhi, K. E. Pollock, & J. L. Harris (Eds.), Communication development and disorders in African American children: Research, assessment, and intervention (pp. 1-18). Baltimore: Brookes.
72. Craig, H. K., Connor, C. M., & Washington, J. A. (2003). Early positive predictors of later reading comprehension for African American students: A preliminary investigation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 31-43.
73. Craig, H. K., Thompson, C. A., Washington, J. A., & Potter, S. L. (2003). Phonological features of child African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 623-635.
74. Craig, H. K., Thompson, C. A., Washington, J. A., & Potter, S. L. (2004). Performance of elementary grade African American students on the Gray Oral Reading Tests. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35, 141-154.
75. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (1994). The complex syntax skills of poor, urban, African American preschoolers at school entry. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 25, 181-190.
76. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (1995). African American English and linguistic complexity in preschool discourse: A second look. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 26, 87-93.
77. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2000). An assessment battery for identifying language impairments in African American children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 366-379.
78. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2002). Oral language expectations for African American preschoolers and kindergartners. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 59-70.
79. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004a). Grade-related changes in the production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 450-463.
80. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004b). Language variation and literacy learning. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 228-247). New York: Guilford Press.
81. Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004c). [Teacher, parent, and student ratings of students' abilities]. Unpublished raw data.
82. Craig, H. K., Washington, J. A., & Thompson, C. A. (in press). Oral language expectations for African American students in grades 1 through 5. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
83. Craig, H. K., Washington, J. A., & Thompson-Porter, C. (1998a). Average c-unit lengths in the discourse of African American children from low income, urban homes. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 433-444.
84. Craig, H. K., Washington, J. A., & Thompson-Porter, C. (1998b). Performances of young African American children on two comprehension tasks. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 445-457.
85. Cunningham, P. M. (1976-1977). Teachers' correction responses to black-dialect miscues which are non-meaning-changing. Reading Research Quarterly, 12, 637-653.
86. Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn. A blueprint for creating schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
87. Darling-Hammond, L., & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining "highly qualified teachers": What does "scientifically-based research" actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31 (9), 13-25.
88. Demont, E., & Gombert, J. E. (1996). Phonological awareness as a predictor of recoding skills and syntactic awareness as a predictor of comprehension skills. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 315-332.
89. DeStefano, J. (1972). Productive language differences in fifth-grade black students' syntactic forms. Elementary English, 47, 552-558.
90. DeTemple, J. M. (2001). Parents and children reading books together. In D. K. Dickinson & P. O. Tabors (Eds.), Beginning literacy with children: Young children learning at home and school (pp. 31-51). Baltimore: Brookes.
91. De Villiers, J. (2003). Defining SLI: A linguistic perspective. In Y. Levy & J. Schaeffer (Eds.), Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of Specific Language Impairment (pp. 425-447). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
92. Dickinson, D. K., & Smith, M. W. (1994). Long-term effects of preschool teachers- book readings on low-income children's vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29, 104-122.
93. Dillard, J. L. (1972). Black English: Its history and usage in the United States. New York: Random House.
94. Dunn, L. (1959). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
95. Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
96. Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
97. Fasold, R. W. (1972). Tense marking in Black English. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
98. Fasold, R. W., & Wolfram, W. (1970). Some linguistic features of Negro dialect. In R. W. Fasold & R. W. Shuy (Eds.), Teaching standard English in the inner city, Volume 6 (pp. 41-86). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
99. Fazio, B., Naremore, R. C., & Connell, P. J. (1996). Tracking children from poverty at risk for specific language impairment: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 611-624.
100. Feagans, L., & Haskins, R. (1986). Neighborhood dialogues of Black and White 5-year-olds. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 7, 181-200.
101. Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2003). America's children: Key national indicators of well-being. (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
102. Fishback, P. V., & Baskin, J. H. (1991). Narrowing the Black-White gap in child literacy in 1910: The roles of school inputs and family inputs. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 73, 725-728.
103. Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. New York: Multilingual Matters.
104. Fletcher, P., & Garman, M. (1988). Normal language development and language impairment: Syntax and beyond. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 2, 97-113.
105. Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37-55.
106. Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16, 203-212.
107. Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1996). Black students' school success: Coping with the burden of "acting White." Urban Review, 18, 176-206.
108. Fraser, C., Bellugi, U., & Brown, R. (1963). Control of grammar in imitation, comprehension, and production. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 121-135.
109. Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2002). Understanding the Black-White test score gap in the first two years of school. Working Paper 8975. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
110. Fudala, J. B. (1974). Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale-Revised. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
111. Fudala, J. B. (2001). Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
112. Fudala, J. B., & Reynolds, W. M. (1986). Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
113. Fujiki, M., & Brinton, B. (1987). Elicited imitation revisited: A comparison with spontaneous language production. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 301-311.
114. Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational Psychologist, 36 (1), 45-56.
115. Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430.
116. Gemake, J. S. (1981). Interference of certain dialect elements with reading comprehension for third graders. Reading Improvement, 18, 183-189.
117. Gill, S., & Reynolds, A. J. (1999). Educational expectations and school achievement of urban African American children. Journal of School Psychology, 37, 403-424.
118. Gleitman, L. R., & Gillette, J. (1999). The role of syntax in verb learning. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of child language acquisition (pp. 279-295). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
119. Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (1995). Reinterpreting children's sentence comprehension: Toward a new framework. In P. J. Fletcher & B. MacWhinney (Eds.), The handbook of child language (pp. 420-461). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
120. Goldman, R., & Fristoe, M. (1986). Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
121. Goodman, K. S., & Buck, C. (1973). Dialect barriers to reading comprehension revisited. The Reading Teacher, 27, 6-12.
122. Gopnik, M., & Crago, M. B. (1991). Familial aggregation of a developmental language disorder. Cognition, 39, 1-50.
123. Graham, S. (1994). Motivation in African Americans. Review of Educational Research, 64, 55-117.
124. Gray, S., Plante, E., Vance, R., & Henrichsen, M. (1999). The diagnostic accuracy of four vocabulary tests administered to preschool-age children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 30, 196-206.
125. Gray, W. S., & Robinson, H. M. (1967). Gray Oral Reading Test. Indianapolis, IN: Bobb-Merrill.
126. Green, L. J. (1998). Remote past and states in African-American English. American Speech, 73, 115-138.
127. Green, L. J. (2000). Aspectual be-type constructions and coercion in African American English. Natural Language Semantics, 8, 1-25.
128. Green, L. J. (2002). African American English: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
129. Grigg, W. S., Daane, M. C., Jin, Y., & Campbell, J. R. (2003). The nation's report card: Reading 2002 (NCES 2003-521). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
130. Gutman, L. M., & McLoyd, V. C. (2000). Parents' management of their children's education within the home, at school, and in the community: An examination of African-American families living in poverty. The Urban Review, 32, 1-24.
131. Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A. J., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). The academic achievement of African American students during early adolescence: An examination of multiple risk, promotive, and protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 367-399.
132. Hammer, C. S. (1999). Guiding language development: How African American mothers and their infants structure play. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1219-1233.
133. Harber, J. R. (1977). Influence of presentation dialect and orthographic form on reading performance of Black, inner-city children. Educational Research Quarterly, 2 (2), 9-16.
134. Harber, J. R. (1982). Accepting dialect renderings of extant materials on Black-English speaking children's oral reading scores. Education and Treatment of Children, 5, 271-282.
135. Harry, B., & Anderson, M. G. (1994). The disproportionate placement of African American males in special education programs: A critique of the process. Journal of Negro Education, 63, 602-619.
136. Hart, J. T., Guthrie, J. T., & Winfield, L. (1980). Black English phonology and learning to read. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 636-646.
137. Haycock, K., Jerald, C., & Huang, S. (2001). Closing the gap: Done in a decade. Washington, DC: Education Trust, Thinking K-16.
138. Haynes, W. O., & Moran, M. J. (1989). A cross-sectional-developmental study of final consonant production in southern Black children from preschool through third grade. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 20, 400-406.
139. Headlee Amendment. (1978). Michigan Constitution, Article 9 §§ 6, 25-34.
140. Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
141. Hedges, L., & Nowell, A. (1998). Black-White test score convergence since 1965. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-White test score gap (pp. 149-181). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
142. Hester, E. (1996). Narratives of young African American children. In A. Kamhi, K. Pollock, & J. Harris (Eds.), Communication development and disorders in African American children (pp. 227-245). Baltimore: Brookes.
143. Hinton, L. N., & Pollock, K. E. (2000). Regional variations in the phonological characteristics of African American Vernacular English. World Englishes, 19, 39-58.
144. Hoffer, T. B., Sederstrom, S., Selfa, L., Welch, V., Hess, M., Brown, S., et al. (2003). Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities: Summary Report 2002. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center.
145. Hoffman, K., & Llagas, C. (2003). Status and trends in the education of Blacks (NCES 2003-034). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
146. Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. New Haven, CT: Yale University, Department of Sociology.
147. Hoover, H. D., Dunbar, S. B., & Frisbie, D. A. (2001). Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. Chicago: Riverside Publishing.
148. Hunt, K. W. (1970). Syntactic maturity in schoolchildren and adults. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 35, 1-67. (1, Serial No. 134).
149. Iceland, J., Weinberg, D. H., & Steinmetz, E. (2002). U.S. Census Bureau, Series CENSR-3, Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980-2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
150. Isaacs, G. J. (1996). Persistence of non-standard dialect in school-age children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 3F9, 434-441.
151. Jackson, S. C., & Roberts, J. E. (2001). Complex syntax production of African American preschoolers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1083-1096.
152. Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (Eds.). (1998). The Black-White test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
153. Johnson, L. B. (1964). War on Poverty, President Johnson's 1964 State of the Union Address. Washington, DC.
154. Kaufman, A., & Kaufman, N. (1983). Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
155. Klecan-Aker, J. S., & Hedrick, D. L. (1985). A study of the syntactic language skills of normal school-age children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 16, 187-198.
156. Klee, T. (1992). Developmental and diagnostic characteristics of quantitative measures of children's language production. Topics in Language Disorders, 12 (2), 28-41.
157. Klee, T., & Fitzgerald, M. D. (1985). The relation between grammatical development and mean length of utterance in morphemes. Journal of Child Language, 12, 251-269.
158. Klee, T., Pearce, K., & Carson, D. K. (2000). Improving the positive predictive value of screening for developmental language disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 821-833.
159. Kligman, D., & Cronnell, B. (1974). Black English and spelling. Southwest Regional Laboratory for Education Research and Development Technical Report No. 50. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 108 234)
160. Klima, E. S., & Bellugi, U. (1966). Syntactic regularities in the speech of children. In J. Lyons & R J. Wales (Eds.), Psycholinguistics papers (pp. 183-208). Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
161. Kovac, C. (1980). Children's acquisition of variable features. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
162. Kramer, C., James, S., & Saxman, J. (1979). A comparison of language samples elicited at home and in the clinic. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 44, 321-330.
163. Labov, W. (1970). The study of nonstandard English. Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
164. Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
165. Labov, W. (1998). Co-existent systems in African American English. In S. S. Mufwene, J. R. Rickford, G. Bailey, & J. Baugh (Eds.), African American English: Structure, history, and use (pp. 110-153). London: Routledge.
166. Labov, W., Baker, B., Bullock, S., Ross, L., & Brown, M. (1998). A graphemic-phonemic analysis of the reading errors of inner city children. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved June 6, 2001, from http://www.Ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/Papers/GAREC/GAREC.html
167. Labov, W., Cohen, P., Robins, C., & Lewis, J. (1968). A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. Cooperative Research Project No. 3288. Washington, DC: Cooperative Research Program of the Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
168. Labov, W., & Harris, W. A. (1986). De facto segregation of black and white vernaculars. In D. Sankoff (Ed.), Diversity and diachrony (pp. 1-24). Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
169. Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., & Nye, C. (2000). The feasibility of universal screening for primary speech and language delay: Findings from a systematic review of the literature. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 42, 190-200.
170. Lee, L. (1974). Developmental sentence analysis. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
171. Lee, V. E., & Burkham, D. T. (2002). Inequality at the starting gate: Social background differences in achievement as children begin school. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
172. Leonard, L. (1972). What is deviant language? Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 427-446.
173. Leonard, L. B. (1995). Functional categories in the grammars of children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 1270-1283.
174. Leonard, L. B. (1998). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
175. Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten thru grade twelve. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers.
176. Loeb, D. F., & Leonard, L. B. (1991). Subject case marking and verb morphology in normally developing and specifically language-impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 340-346.
177. MacWhinney, B. (1994). The CHILDES project: Tools for analyzing talk (2nd ed.). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University.
178. Manning, M. L., & Baruth, L. G. (2000). Multicultural education of children and adolescents (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
179. Maratsos, M., Kuczaj, S., Fox, D., & Chalkley, M. (1979). Some empirical studies in the acquisition of transformational relations: Passives, negatives, and the past tense. In A. Collins (Ed.), Children's language and communication (pp. 1-46). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
180. Markham, L. R. (1984). "De dog and de cat": Assisting speakers of Black English as they begin to write. Young Children, 39 (4), 15-24.
181. Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board. (1979). 463 F. Supp. 1027.
182. Martin, S., & Wolfram, W. (1998). The sentence in African-American vernacular English. In S. S. Mufwene, J. R. Rickford, G. Bailey, & J. Baugh (Eds.), African-American English: Structure, history and use (pp. 11-36). London: Routledge.
183. McCarthy, D. (1930). The language development of the preschool child. In Y. Brackbill (Ed.), Infancy and early childhood (pp. 3-14). New York: The Free Press.
184. McLoyd, V. C. (1991). What is the study of African American children the study of? In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed., pp. 419-440). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
185. McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.
186. McLoyd, V. C., & Ceballo, R. (1998). Conceptualizing and assessing economic context: Issues in the study of race and child development. In V. C. McLoyd & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents: Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical issues (pp. 251-278). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
187. McNeill, D. (1970). The acquisition of language: The study of developmental psycholinguistics. New York: Harper & Row.
188. Melmed, P. J. (1973). Black English phonology: The question of reading interference. In J. L. Laffey & R. W. Shuy (Eds.), Language differences: Do they interfere? (pp. 70-85). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
189. Menyuk, P. (1964). Syntactic rules used by children from preschool through first grade. Child Development, 35, 533-546.
190. Metropolitan Achievement Tests (7th ed.). (1993). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace.
191. Michigan Educational Assessment Program, Grade 4. (1999-2001). Lansing, MI: State of Michigan.
192. Miller, J. F. (1981). Assessing language production in children: Experimental procedures. Baltimore: University Park Press.
193. Miller, J. F. (1991). Quantifying productive language disorders. In J. F. Miller (Ed.), Research on child language disorders: A decade of progress (pp. 211-220). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
194. Miller, J. F. (1996). Progress in assessing, describing, and defining child language disorder. In K. N. Cole, P. S. Dale, & D. J. Thal (Eds.), Assessment of communication and language, Volume 6 (pp. 309-324). Baltimore: Brookes.
195. Miller, W., & Ervin-Tripp, S. (1964). The development of grammar in child language. In U. Bellugi & R. Brown (Eds.), The acquisition of language. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (pp. 9-34). Lafayette, IN: Child Development Publications of the Society for Research in Child Development.
196. Minority Student Achievement Network. Retrieved September 23, 2004, from http://www. msanetwork.org/aboutus.asp
197. Morgan, M. (1998). More than a mood or an attitude: Discourse and verbal genres in African-American culture. In S. S. Mufwene, J. R. Rickford, G. Bailey, & J. Baugh (Eds.), African-American English: Structure, history and use (pp. 251-281). London: Routledge.
198. Mufwene, S. S., Rickford, J. R., Bailey, G., & Baugh, J. (Eds.). (1998). African-American English: Structure, history and use. London: Routledge.
199. Nelson, N. W. (1993). Childhood language disorders in context: Infancy through adolescence. New York: Macmillan.
200. Nelson, N. W., & Hyter, Y. D. (1990, November). How to use Black English Sentence Scoring (BESS) as a tool of non-biased assessment. Short Course presented at the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Annual Convention, Seattle, WA.
201. Nettles, M. T., & Perna, L. W. (1997). The African American education data book (Vol. II: Preschool through high school). Ann Arbor, MI: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute of College Fund/UNCF.
202. Neuman, S. B., & Roskos, K. (1992). Literacy objects as cultural tools: Effects on children's literacy conversations in play. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 202-225.
203. Newcomer, P. L., & Hammill, D. D. (1977). Test of Language Development. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
204. Ninio, A., & Snow, C. E. (1999). The development of pragmatics: Learning to use language appropriately. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of child language acquisition (pp. 347-383). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
205. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. (2002). 20 U.S.C. § 6301 et seq.
206. Oetting, J. B., Cantrell, J. P., & Horohov, J. E. (1999). A study of specific language impairment (SLI) in the context of non-standard dialect. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 13, 25-44.
207. Oetting, J. B., & Cleveland, L. H. (in press). The clinical utility of nonword repetition for children living in the rural South of the US. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics
208. Oetting, J. B., & McDonald, J. L. (2001). Nonmainstream dialect use and specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 207-223.
209. Oetting, J. B., & McDonald, J. L. (2002). Methods for characterizing participants' nonmainstream dialect use within studies of child language. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 505-518.
210. Oetting, J. B., & Pruitt, S. (in press). Southern African American English use across groups. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics
211. Ogbu, J. U. (1988). Cultural diversity and human development. New Directions for Child Development, 42, 11-28.
212. Ogbu, J. U. (1992). Understanding cultural diversity and learning. Educational Researcher, 21 (8), 5-14.
213. Ogbu, J. U. (2003). Black American students in an affluent suburb: A study of academic disengagement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
214. O'Sullivan, C. Y., Lauko, M. A., Grigg, W. S., Qian, J., & Zhang, J. (2003). The nation's report card: Science 2000 (NCES 2003-453). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
215. Owens, R. E. (1988). Language development: An introduction. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
216. Owens, R. E. Jr., (2001). Language development: An introduction (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
217. Owings, W., & Magliaro, S. (1998). Grade retention: A history of failure. Educational Leadership, 56 (1), 86-88.
218. Parnell, M. M., Patterson, S. S., & Harding, M. A. (1984). Answers to Wh-questions: A developmental study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 297-305.
219. Patton, J. M. (1998). The disproportionate representation of African Americans in special education: Looking behind the curtain for understanding and solutions. Journal of Special Education, 32, 25-31.
220. Paul, R. (2001). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: Assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
221. Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., & Burchinal, M. S. (1997). Relations between preschool children's child-care experiences and concurrent development: The cost, quality, and outcomes study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 451-477.
222. Pellegrini, A., Perlmutter, J., Galda, L., & Brody, G. (1990). Joint reading between Black Head Start children and their mothers. Child Development, 61, 443-453.
223. Pendergast, K., Dickey, S., Semlar, J., & Soder, A. (1969). Photo Articulation Test. Danville, IL: Interstate Printers.
224. Perry, T., & Delpit, L. (Eds.). (1998). The real Ebonics debate: Power, language, and the education of African-American children. Boston: Beacon Press.
225. Persky, H. R., Daane, M. C., & Jin, Y. (2003). The nation's report card: Writing 2002 (NCES 2003-529). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
226. Phillips, M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P., & Crane, J. (1998). Family background, parenting practices, and the Black-White test score gap. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-White test score gap (pp. 103-145). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
227. Phillips, M., Crouse, J., & Ralph, J. (1998). Does the Black-White test score gap widen after children enter school? In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-White test score gap (pp. 229-272). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
228. Piestrup, A. (1973). Black dialect interference and accommodation of reading instruction in first grade (Language-Behavior Research Laboratory Monograph No. 4). Berkeley, CA: University of California.
229. Pike, K. (1967). Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague: Mouton.
230. Poeppel, D., & Wexler, K. (1993). The full competence hypothesis of clause structure in early German. Language, 69, 1-33.
231. Pollock, K. E., & Berni, M. C. (1997, October). A phonetic analysis of vocalic and postvocalic /r/ in African American Memphians. Paper presented at the 25th annual NWAVE (New Ways of Analyzing Variation in English) Conference, Las Vegas, NV.
232. Portes, O. R. (1996). Ethnicity and culture in educational psychology. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 331-357). New York: Macmillan.
233. Prutting, C., Gallagher, T., & Mulac, A. (1975). Imitation: A closer look. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 41, 412-422.
234. Purcell-Gates, V. (1996). Stories, coupons, and the TV Guide: Relationships between home literacy experiences and emergent literacy knowledge. Reading Research Quarterly, 31, 406-428.
235. Ramey, C. T., Campbell, F. A., Burchinal, M., Skinner, M. L., Gardner, D. M., & Ramey, S. L. (2000). Persistent effects of early childhood education on high-risk children and their mothers. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 2-14.
236. Reveron, W. W. (1978). The acquisition of four Black English morphological rules by Black preschool children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus.
237. Rice, M. L. (1998, November). In search of an inherited grammatical competency. Paper presented at the ASLHA Annual Meeting, San Antonio, TX.
238. Rice, M. L. (2000). Grammatical symptoms of specific language impairment. In D. V. M. Bishop & L. B. Leonard (Eds.), Speech and language impairments in children (pp. 17-34). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
239. Rice, M. L. (2003). A unified model of specific and general language delay: Grammatical tense as a clinical marker of unexpected variation. In Y. Levy & J. Schaeffer (Eds.), Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of Specific Language Impairment (pp. 63-95). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
240. Rice, M., & Oetting, J. B. (1993). Morphological deficits of children with SLI: Evaluation of number marking and agreement. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 1249-1257.
241. Rice, M., & Wexler, K. (1996). Toward tense as a clinical marker of specific language impairment in English-speaking children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1239-1257.
242. Rice, M., Wexler, K., & Cleave, P. L. (1995). Specific language impairment as a period of extended optional infinitive. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 850-863.
243. Richards, B. (1987). Type/token ratios: What do they really tell us? Journal of Child Language, 14, 201-209.
244. Rickford, J. R. (1997). Prior creolization of African-American vernacular English? Sociohistorical and textual evidence from 17th and 18th centuries. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 1, 315-336.
245. Rickford, J. R. (1998). The Creole origins of African-American vernacular English: Evidence from copula absence. In S. S. Mufwene, J. R. Rickford, G. Bailey, & J. Baugh (Eds.), African-American English: Structure, history and use (pp. 154-200). London: Routledge.
246. Rickford, J. R. (1999). The Ebonics controversy in my backyard: A sociolinguist's experiences and reflections. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 3, 267-275.
247. Rickford, J. R., & Rafal, C. T. (1996). Preterite Had + V-Ed in the narratives of African-American preadolescents. American Speech, 71, 227-254.
248. Roberts, K. (1983). Comprehension and production of word order in Stage I. Child Development, 54, 443-449.
249. Robinson, C. C., Larsen, J. M., & Haupt, J. H. (1996). The influence of selecting and taking picture books home on the at-home reading behaviors of kindergarten children. Reading Research and Instruction, 35, 249-259.
250. Rodekohr, R. K., & Haynes, W. O. (2001). Differentiating dialect from disorder: A comparison of two processing tasks and a standardized language test. Journal of Communication Disorders, 34, 255-272.
251. Ross, S. H., Oetting, J. B., & Stapleton, B. (2004). Preterite had + V-ed: A developmental narrative structure of African American English. American Speech, 79, 167-193.
252. Russell, A. (1990). The effects of child-staff ratio on staff and child behavior in preschools: An experimental study. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 4, 77-90.
253. Russo, C. J., & Talbert-Johnson, C. (1997). The over-representation of African American children in special education: The re-segregation of educational programming. Education and Urban Society, 29, 136-148.
254. Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331.
255. Rystrom, R. (1973-1974). Perceptions of vowel letter-sound relationships by first grade children. Reading Research Quarterly, 2, 170-185.
256. Sable, J. (1998). The educational progress of Black students. In J. Wirt, T. Snyder, J. Sable, S. P. Choy, Y. Bae, J. Stennett, A. Gruner, & M. Perie (Eds.), The condition of education 1998 (NCES 98-013, pp. 2-10). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved August 14, 2002, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/98013.pdf
257. Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Barocas, R., Zax, M., & Greenspan, S. (1987). Intelligence quotient scores of 4-year-old children: Social environmental risk factors. Pediatrics, 79, 343-350.
258. Scarborough, H. S. (1998). Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities: Phonological awareness and some other promising predictors. In B. K. Shapiro, P. J. Accardo, & A. J. Capute (Eds.), Specific reading disability: A view of the spectrum (pp. 75-120). Timonium, MD: York Press.
259. Scarborough, H. S., & Dobrich, W. (1994). On the efficacy of reading to preschoolers. Developmental Review, 14, 245-302.
260. Scarborough, H. S., Wyckoff, J., & Davidson, R. (1986). A reconsideration of the relation between age and mean length of utterance. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 29, 394-399.
261. Schepis, M. M., Reid, D. H., Ownbey, J., & Parsons, M. B. (2001). Training support staff to embed teaching within natural routines of young children with disabilities in an inclusive preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 313-327.
262. Scott, C. M. (1988). Spoken and written syntax. In M. A. Nippold (Ed.), Later language development: Ages nine through nineteen (pp. 49-95). Boston: College-Hill Press.
263. Scott, C. M. (2004). Syntactic contributions to literacy learning. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 340-362). New York: Guilford Press.
264. Scott, C. M., & Rogers, L. M. (1996). Written language abilities of African American children and youth. In A. G. Kamhi, K. E. Pollock, & J. L. Harris (Eds.), Communication development and disorders in African American children (pp. 307-332). Baltimore: Brookes.
265. Seymour, H. N., Ashton, N., & Wheeler, L. W. (1986). The effect of race on language elicitation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 17, 146-151.
266. Seymour, H. N., & Ralabate, P. K. (1985). The acquisition of a phonologic feature of Black English. Journal of Communication Disorders, 18, 139-148.
267. Seymour, H. N., & Roeper, T. (1999). Grammatical acquisition of African American English. In O. L. Taylor & L. Leonard (Eds.), Language acquisition across North America: Cross-cultural and cross-linguistic perspectives (pp. 109-152). San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
268. Seymour, H. N., Roeper, T. W., & de Villiers, J. (2003). Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
269. Seymour, H. N., & Seymour, C. M. (1981). Black English and Standard American English contrasts in consonantal development of four and five-year old children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46, 274-280.
270. Simons, H. D., & Johnson, K. R. (1973). Black English syntax and reading interference. Research in the Teaching of English, 339-358.
271. Singham, M. (1998). The canary in the mine: The achievement gap between Black and White students. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, 8-15.
272. Singham, M. (2003). The achievement gap: Myths and reality. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 586-591.
273. Slaughter-Defoe, D. T., & Rubin, H. H. (2001). A longitudinal case study of Head Start eligible children: Implications for urban education. Educational Psychologist, 36 (1), 31-44.
274. Smith, M. W., & Dickinson, D. K. (1994). Describing oral language opportunities and environments in Head Start and other preschool classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 9, 345-366.
275. Smith, T. T., Bradham, T., Chandler, L., & Wells, D. (2000). The effect of examiner's race on the performance of African-American children on the SCAN. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 31, 116-125.
276. Smitherman, G. (1977). Talkin and testifyin: The language of Black America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
277. Smitherman, G. (1998). Word from the hood: The lexicon of African-American Vernacular English. In S. S. Mufwene, J. R. Rickford, G. Bailey, & J. Baugh (Eds.), African-American English: Structure, history and use (pp. 203-225). London: Routledge.
278. Snow, C., Burns, S., & Griffin, M. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
279. Snow, C. E., & Tabors, P. O. (1993). Language skills that relate to literacy development. In B. Spodek & O. Saracho (Eds.), Yearbook in early childhood education, Volume 4 (pp. 1-20). New York: Teachers College Press.
280. Spencer, M. B., Noll, E., Stoltzfus, J., & Harpalani, V. (2001). Identity and school adjustment: Revising the "acting White" assumption. Educational Psychologist, 36 (1), 21-30.
281. Standard & Poor's School Evaluation Services. (2002). Data set retrieved September 23, 2004, from http://www.ses.standardandpoors.com
282. Stark, R., & Tallal, P. (1981). Selection of children with specific language deficits. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46, 114-122.
283. Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1998). Stereotype threat and the test performance of academically successful African Americans. In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-White test score gap (pp. 401-430). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
284. Steffensen, M. (1974). The acquisition of Black English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Evanston.
285. Steffensen, M. S., Reynolds, R. E., McClure, E., & Guthrie, L. F. (1982). Black English Vernacular and reading comprehension: A cloze study of third, sixth, and ninth graders. Journal of Reading Behavior, 14, 285-298.
286. Stevenson, H. W., Chen, C., & Uttal, D. H. (1990). Beliefs and achievement: A study of Black, White, and Hispanic children. Child Development, 61, 508-523.
287. Stewart, W. A. (1970). Toward a history of American Negro dialect. In F. Williams (Ed.), Language and poverty: Perspectives on a theme (pp. 351-379). Chicago: Markham.
288. Stockman, I. (1984, September). The development of linguistic norms for nonmainstream populations. Paper presented at the National Conference on Concerns for Minority Groups in Communication Disorders, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
289. Stockman, I. J. (1996). Phonological development and disorders in African American children. In A. G. Kamhi, K. E. Pollock, & J. L. Harris (Eds.), Communication development and disorders in African American children (pp. 117-153). Baltimore: Brookes.
290. Stockman, I. J. (2000). The new Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III: An illusion of unbiased assessment? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 31, 340-353.
291. Stockman, I., & Vaughn-Cooke, F. (1982). A re-examination of research on the language of Black children: The need for a new framework. Journal of Education, 164, 157-172.
292. Stockman, I., & Vaughn-Cooke, F. (1984, July). A closer look at the dynamic and static locative distinctions. Paper presented at the Third International Child Language Congress, Austin, TX.
293. Stokes, N. H. (1976). A cross sectional study of the acquisition of negation structures in Black children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
294. Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). Putting words together: Morphology and syntax in the preschool years. In J. Berko-Gleason (Ed.), The development of language (5th ed., pp. 162-212). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
295. Templin, M. C. (1957). Certain language skills in children: Their development and interrelationships. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
296. Templin, M. C., & Darley, F. L. (1969). Templin-Darley Tests of Articulation (2nd ed.). Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Bureau of Education Research and Service.
297. TerraNova CTBS. (1997). Monterey, CA: CTB/McGraw-Hill.
298. Terrell, S. L., & Terrell, F. T. (1993). African-American cultures. In D. L. Battle (Ed.), Communication disorders in multicultural populations (pp. 3-37). Boston: Andover Medical.
299. Thomas-Tate, S. R., Washington, J. A., Craig, H. K., & Packard, M. E. W. (2005). Performances of African American preschool and kindergarten students on the Expressive Vocabulary Test. Manuscript submitted for publication.
300. Thompson, C. A. (2003). The oral vocabulary abilities of skilled and unskilled African American readers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
301. Thompson, C. A., & Craig, H. K. (2005). African American students who are proficient or struggling readers: The role of higher order vocabulary abilities. Manuscript submitted for publication.
302. Thompson, C. A., Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Variable production of African American English across oracy and literacy contexts. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35, 269-282.
303. Toppo, G. (2003, July 2). The face of the American teacher; White and female, while her students are ethnically diverse. USA Today, p. D01.
304. Torgesen, J. K. (1998). Catch them before they fall: Identification and assessment to prevent reading failure in young children. American Educator, Spring/Summer, 32-39.
305. Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conway, T., et al. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579-593.
306. Torrey, J. (1972). The language of Black children in the early grades. New London: Connecticut College.
307. Tyack, D., & Ingram, D. (1977). Children's production and comprehension of questions. Journal of Child Language, 4, 211-224.
308. Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. R., Small, S. G., Pratt, A., Chen, R., et al. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult to remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601-638.
309. Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Tanzman, M. S. (1998). The case for early intervention in diagnosing specific reading disability. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 367-397.
310. Vernon-Feagans, L. (1996). Children's talk in communities and classrooms. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
311. Vernon-Feagans, L., Hammer, C. S., Miccio, A., & Manlove, E. (2001). Early language and literacy skills in low-income African American and Hispanic children. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 192-210). New York: Guilford Press.
312. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (1992). Performances of low-income, African American preschool and kindergarten children on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 23, 329-333.
313. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (1994). Dialectal forms during discourse of urban, African American preschoolers living in poverty. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 816-823.
314. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (1998). Socioeconomic status and gender influences on children's dialectal variations. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 618-626.
315. Washington, J., & Craig, H. (1999). Performances of at-risk, African American preschoolers on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 75-82.
316. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (2001). Reading performance and dialectal variation. In J. Harris, A. Kamhi, & K. Pollock (Eds.), Literacy in African American communities (pp. 147-168). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
317. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (2002). Morphosyntactic forms of African American English used by young children and their caregivers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 209-231.
318. Washington, J. A., & Craig, H. K. (2004). A language screening protocol for use with young African American children in urban settings. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 13, 329-340.
319. Washington, J. A., Craig, H. K., & Kushmaul, A. (1998). Variable use of African American English across two language sampling contexts. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 1115-1124.
320. Wasley, P. A. (2002). Small classes, small schools: The time is now. Educational Leadership, 59 (5), 6-10.
321. Watkins, R. V. (1994). Grammatical challenges for children with Specific Language Impairment. In R. V. Watkins & M. L. Rice (Eds.), Specific Language Impairments in children, Volume 4 (pp. 53-68). Baltimore: Brookes.
322. Watkins, R. V., Kelly, D. J., Harbers, H. M., & Hollis, W. (1995). Measuring children's lexical diversity: Differentiating typical and impaired language learners. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 1349-1355.
323. Weiss, A. R., Lutkus, A. D., Hildebrant, B. S., & Johnson, M. S. (2002). The nation's report card: Geography 2001 (NCES 2002-484). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics.
324. Westerlund, M., & Sundelin, C. (2000). Screening for developmental language disability in 3-year-old children. Experiences from a field study in a Swedish municipality. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 26, 91-110.
325. Whitehurst, G. J., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Payne, A. C., Crone, D. A., & Fischel, J. E. (1994). Outcomes of emergent literacy intervention in Head start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542-555.
326. Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. L. (2001). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders to readers. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 11-29). New York: Guilford Press.
327. Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (1992). Gray Oral Reading Tests, Third Edition. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
328. Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (2001). Gray Oral Reading Tests, Fourth Edition. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
329. Wiener, F. D., Lewnau, L. E., & Erway, E. (1983). Measuring language competency in speakers of Black American English. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 48, 76-84.
330. Williams, K. (1997). Expressive Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
331. Williams, K., & Wang, Y. (1997). Technical manual: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
332. Willig, A. C., Harnisch, D. L., Hill, K. T., & Maehr, M. L. (1983). Sociocultural and educational correlates of success-failure attributions and evaluation anxiety in the school setting for Black, Hispanic, and Anglo children. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 385-410.
333. Winford, D. (1997). On the origins of African American Vernacular English: A Creolist perspective. Diachronica, 14, 305-344.
334. Wolfram, W. (1971). Black and white speech differences revisited. In W. Wolfram & N. Clarke (Eds.), Black-White speech relationships (pp. 139-161). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
335. Wolfram, W. (1994). The phonology of a sociocultural variety: The case of African American Vernacular English. In J. Bernthal & N. Bankston (Eds.), Child phonology: Characteristics, assessment and intervention with special populations (pp. 227-244). New York: Thieme.
336. Wolfram, W., Adger, C. T., & Christian, D. (1999). Dialects in schools and communities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
337. Wolfram, W., & Fasold, R. (1974). The study of social dialects in American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
338. Wolfram, W., & Schilling-Estes, N. (1998). American English: Dialects and variation. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
339. Wong, C. A., & Rowley, S. J. (2001). The schooling of ethnic minority children: Commentary. Educational Psychologist, 36 (1), 57-66.
340. Woodcock, R. W. (1987). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests, Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
341. Wyatt, T. A. (1996). Acquisition of the African American English copula. In A. G. Kamhi, K. E. Pollock, & J. L. Harris (Eds.), Communication development and disorders in African American children: Research, assessment, and intervention (pp. 95-115). Baltimore: Brookes.