Reactive oxygen species, inflammation and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis

Translational Andrology and Urology

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 256-276

  Khan, Saeed R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

NADPH oxidase; Nephrolithiasis; Oxidative stress (OS); Randall's plaque (RP); Reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Indexed keywords

EID: 84907443257     PISSN: 22234683     EISSN: 22234691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2223-4683.2014.06.04     Document Type: Review

References (258)

1. Finlayson B. Symposium on renal lithiasis. Renal lithiasis in review. Urol Clin North Am 1974;1:181-212.
2. Finlayson B. Physicochemical aspects of urolithiasis. Kidney Int 1978;13:344-60.
3. Khan SR. Role of renal epithelial cells in the initiation of calcium oxalate stones. Nephron Exp Nephrol 2004;98:e55-60.
4. Khan SR. Crystal-induced inflammation of the kidneys: results from human studies, animal models, and tissue-culture studies. Clin Exp Nephrol 2004;8:75-88.
5. Khan SR. Hyperoxaluria-induced oxidative stress and antioxidants for renal protection. Urol Res 2005;33:349-57.
6. Khan SR. Renal tubular damage/dysfunction: key to the formation of kidney stones. Urol Res 2006;34:86-91.
7. Dröge W. Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function. Physiol Rev 2002;82:47-95.
8. Kamata H, Hirata H. Redox regulation of cellular signalling. Cell Signal 1999;11:1-14.
9. Khand FD, Gordge MP, Robertson WG, et al. Mitochondrial superoxide production during oxalate-mediated oxidative stress in renal epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2002;32:1339-50.
10. Meimaridou E, Jacobson J, Seddon AM, et al. Crystal and microparticle effects on MDCK cell superoxide production: oxalate-specific mitochondrial membrane potential changes. Free Radic Biol Med 2005;38:1553-64.
11. Cao LC, Honeyman TW, Cooney R, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in renal cell oxalate toxicity. Kidney Int 2004;66:1890-900.
12. Meimaridou E, Lobos E, Hothersall JS. Renal oxidative vulnerability due to changes in mitochondrial-glutathione and energy homeostasis in a rat model of calcium oxalate urolithiasis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006;291:F731-40.
13. Khan SR, Khan A, Byer KJ. Temporal changes in the expression of mRNA of NADPH oxidase subunits in renal epithelial cells exposed to oxalate or calcium oxalate crystals. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011;26:1778-85.
14. Umekawa T, Byer K, Uemura H, et al. Diphenyleneiodium (DPI) reduces oxalate ion- and calcium oxalate monohydrate and brushite crystal-induced upregulation of MCP-1 in NRK 52E cells. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005;20:870-8.
15. Li N, Yi FX, Spurrier JL, et al. Production of superoxide through NADH oxidase in thick ascending limb of Henle's loop in rat kidney. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2002;282:F1111-9.
16. Geiszt M, Kopp JB, Varnai P, et al. Identification of renox, an NAD(P)H oxidase in kidney. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000;97:8010-4.
17. Hanna IR, Taniyama Y, Szocs K, et al. NAD(P)H oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species as mediators of angiotensin II signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2002;4:899-914.
18. Joshi S, Peck AB, Khan SR. NADPH oxidase as a therapeutic target for oxalate induced injury in kidneys. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2013;2013:462361.
19. Toblli JE, Ferder L, Stella I, et al. Effects of angiotensin II subtype 1 receptor blockade by losartan on tubulointerstitial lesions caused by hyperoxaluria. J Urol 2002;168:1550-5.
20. Toblli JE, Ferder L, Stella I, et al. Protective role of enalapril for chronic tubulointerstitial lesions of hyperoxaluria. J Urol 2001;166:275-80.
21. Umekawa T, Hatanaka Y, Kurita T, et al. Effect of angiotensin II receptor blockage on osteopontin expression and calcium oxalate crystal deposition in rat kidneys. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:635-44.
22. Zuo J, Khan A, Glenton PA, et al. Effect of NADPH oxidase inhibition on the expression of kidney injury molecule and calcium oxalate crystal deposition in hydroxy-L-proline-induced hyperoxaluria in the male Sprague-Dawley rats. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011;26:1785-96.
23. Wassmann S, Laufs U, Muller K, et al. Cellular antioxidant effects of atorvastatin in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:300-5.
24. Tsujihata M, Momohara C, Yoshioka I, et al. Atorvastatin inhibits renal crystal retention in a rat stone forming model. J Urol 2008;180:2212-7.
25. Li CY, Deng YL, Sun BH. Taurine protected kidney from oxidative injury through mitochondrial-linked pathway in a rat model of nephrolithiasis. Urol Res 2009;37:211-20.
26. Cao LC, Honeyman T, Jonassen J, et al. Oxalate-induced ceramide accumulation in Madin-Darby canine kidney and LLC-PK1 cells. Kidney Int 2000;57:2403-11.
27. Byer K, Khan SR. Citrate provides protection against oxalate and calcium oxalate crystal induced oxidative damage to renal epithelium. J Urol 2005;173:640-6.
28. Niimi K, Yasui T, Hirose M, et al. Mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening induces the initial process of renal calcium crystallization. Free Radic Biol Med 2012;52:1207-17.
29. Miller NL, Gillen DL, Williams JC Jr, et al. A formal test of the hypothesis that idiopathic calcium oxalate stones grow on Randall's plaque. BJU Int 2009;103:966-71.
30. Evan AP, Lingeman JE, Coe FL, et al. Randall's plaque of patients with nephrolithiasis begins in basement membranes of thin loops of Henle. J Clin Invest 2003;111:607-16.
31. Coe FL, Evan AP, Lingeman JE, et al. Plaque and deposits in nine human stone diseases. Urol Res 2010;38:239-47.
32. Weller RO, Nester B, Cooke SA. Calcification in the human renal papilla: an electron-microscope study. J Pathol 1972;107:211-6.
33. Stoller ML, Low RK, Shami GS, et al. High resolution radiography of cadaveric kidneys: unraveling the mystery of Randall's plaque formation. J Urol 1996;156:1263-6.
34. Stoller ML, Meng MV, Abrahams HM, et al. The primary stone event: a new hypothesis involving a vascular etiology. J Urol 2004;171:1920-4.
35. Khan SR, Rodriguez DE, Gower LB, et al. Association of Randall plaque with collagen fibers and membrane vesicles. J Urol 2012;187:1094-100.
36. Haggitt RC, Pitcock JA. Renal medullary calcifications: a light and electron microscopic study. J Urol 1971;106:342-7.
37. Linnes MP, Krambeck AE, Cornell L, et al. Phenotypic characterization of kidney stone formers by endoscopic and histological quantification of intrarenal calcification. Kidney Int 2013;84:818-25.
38. Khan SR, Finlayson B, Hackett R. Renal papillary changes in patient with calcium oxalate lithiasis. Urology 1984;23:194-9.
39. Randall A. Recent Advances in Knowledge Relating to the Formation, Recognition and Treatment of Kidney Calculi. Bull N Y Acad Med 1944;20:473-84.
40. Evan AP, Coe FL, Lingeman JE, et al. Renal crystal deposits and histopathology in patients with cystine stones. Kidney Int 2006;69:2227-35.
41. Evan AP, Lingeman J, Coe F, et al. Renal histopathology of stone-forming patients with distal renal tubular acidosis. Kidney Int 2007;71:795-801.
42. Evan AP, Lingeman JE, Coe FL, et al. Crystal-associated nephropathy in patients with brushite nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 2005;67:576-91.
43. Evan AP, Lingeman JE, Worcester EM, et al. Renal histopathology and crystal deposits in patients with small bowel resection and calcium oxalate stone disease. Kidney Int 2010;78:310-7.
44. Evan AP, Coe FL, Gillen D, et al. Renal intratubular crystals and hyaluronan staining occur in stone formers with bypass surgery but not with idiopathic calcium oxalate stones. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2008;291:325-34.
45. Evan AE, Lingeman JE, Coe FL, et al. Histopathology and surgical anatomy of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism and calcium phosphate stones. Kidney Int 2008;74:223-9.
46. Evan AP, Lingeman JE, Coe FL, et al. Role of interstitial apatite plaque in the pathogenesis of the common calcium oxalate stone. Semin Nephrol 2008;28:111-9.
47. Cooke SA. The site of calcification in the human renal papilla. Br J Surg 1970;57:890-6.
48. Evan AP. Physiopathology and etiology of stone formation in the kidney and the urinary tract. Pediatr Nephrol 2010;25:831-41.
49. Evan AP, Coe FL, Rittling SR, et al. Apatite plaque particles in inner medulla of kidneys of calcium oxalate stone formers: osteopontin localization. Kidney Int 2005;68:145-154.
50. Evan AP, Bledsoe S, Worcester EM, et al. Renal inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain 3 increases in calcium oxalate stone-forming patients. Kidney Int 2007;72:1503-11.
51. Evan A, Lingeman J, Coe FL, et al. Randall's plaque: pathogenesis and role in calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 2006;69:1313-8.
52. Carpentier X, Bazin D, Combes C, et al. High Zn content of Randall's plaque: a μ-X-ray fluorescence investigation. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2011;25:160-5.
53. Moe OW, Pearle MS, Sakhaee K. Pharmacotherapy of urolithiasis: evidence from clinical trials. Kidney Int 2011;79:385-92.
54. Xie Y, Sakatsume M, Nishi S, et al. Expression, roles, receptors, and regulation of osteopontin in the kidney. Kidney Int 2001;60:1645-57.
55. Lieske JC, Spargo BH, Toback FG. Endocytosis of calcium oxalate crystals and proliferation of renal tubular epithelial cells in a patient with type 1 primary hyperoxaluria. J Urol 1992;148:1517-9.
56. Mandell I, Krauss E, Millan JC. Oxalate-induced acute renal failure in Crohn's disease. Am J Med 1980;69:628-32.
57. Wharton R, D'Agati V, Magun AM, et al. Acute deterioration of renal function associated with enteric hyperoxaluria. Clin Nephrol 1990;34:116-21.
58. Baggio B, Gambaro G, Ossi E, et al. Increased urinary excretion of renal enzymes in idiopathic calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Urol 1983;129:1161-2.
59. Huang HS, Ma MC, Chen CF, et al. Lipid peroxidation and its correlations with urinary levels of oxalate, citric acid, and osteopontin in patients with renal calcium oxalate stones. Urology 2003;62:1123-8.
60. Boonla C, Wunsuwan R, Tungsanga K, et al. Urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine is elevated in patients with nephrolithiasis. Urol Res 2007;35:185-91.
61. Schwille PO, Manoharan M, Schmiedl A. Is idiopathic recurrent calcium urolithiasis in males a cellular disease? Laboratory findings in plasma, urine and erythrocytes, emphasizing the absence and presence of stones, oxidative and mineral metabolism: an observational study. Clin Chem Lab Med 2005;43:590-600.
62. Mushtaq S, Siddiqui AA, Naqvi ZA, et al. Identification of myeloperoxidase, alpha-defensin and calgranulin in calcium oxalate renal stones. Clin Chim Acta 2007;384:41-7.
63. Marengo SR, Resnick MI, Yang L, et al. Differential expression of urinary inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor trimers and dimers in normal compared to active calcium oxalate stone forming men. J Urol 1998;159:1444-50.
64. Atmani F, Glenton PA, Khan SR. Identification of proteins extracted from calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate crystals induced in the urine of healthy and stone forming subjects. Urol Res 1998;26:201-7.
65. Dawson CJ, Grover PK, Kanellos J, et al. Inter-alpha-inhibitor in calcium stones. Clin Sci (Lond) 1998;95:187-93.
66. Roberts SD, Resnick MI. Glycosaminoglycans content of stone matrix. J Urol 1986;135:1078-83.
67. Stapleton AM, Dawson CJ, Grover PK, et al. Further evidence linking urolithiasis and blood coagulation: urinary prothrombin fragment 1 is present in stone matrix. Kidney Int 1996;49:880-8.
68. Boonla C, Hunapathed C, Bovornpadungkitti S, et al. Messenger RNA expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and interleukin-6 in stone-containing kidneys. BJU Int 2008;101:1170-7.
69. Khan SR. Is oxidative stress, a link between nephrolithiasis and obesity, hypertension, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, metabolic syndrome? Urol Res 2012;40:95-112.
70. Obligado SH, Goldfarb DS. The association of nephrolithiasis with hypertension and obesity: a review. Am J Hypertens 2008;21:257-64.
71. Lieske JC, de la Vega LS, Gettman MT, et al. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of urinary tract stones: a population-based case-control study. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:897-904.
72. Jeong IG, Kang T, Bang JK, et al. Association between metabolic syndrome and the presence of kidney stones in a screened population. Am J Kidney Dis 2011;58:383-8.
73. Saucier NA, Sinha MK, Liang KV, et al. Risk factors for CKD in persons with kidney stones: a case-control study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Am J Kidney Dis 2010;55:61-8.
74. Tibblin G. A population study of 50-year-old men. An analysis of the non-participation group. Acta Med Scand 1965;178:453-9.
75. Strazzullo P, Barba G, Vuotto P, et al. Past history of nephrolithiasis and incidence of hypertension in men: a reappraisal based on the results of the Olivetti Prospective Heart Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16:2232-5.
76. Madore F, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al. Nephrolithiasis and risk of hypertension in women. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;32:802-7.
77. Domingos F, Serra A. Nephrolithiasis is associated with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011;26:864-8.
78. Akoudad S, Szklo M, McAdams MA, et al. Correlates of kidney stone disease differ by race in a multi-ethnic middle-aged population: the ARIC study. Prev Med 2010;51:416-20.
79. Meydan N, Barutca S, Caliskan S, et al. Urinary stone disease in diabetes mellitus. Scand J Urol Nephrol 2003;37:64-70.
80. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 2005;68:1230-5.
81. Daudon M, Jungers P. Diabetes and nephrolithiasis. Current diabetes reports 2007;7:443-448.
82. Daudon M, Traxer O, Conort P, et al. Type 2 diabetes increases the risk for uric acid stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2026-33.
83. Rule AD, Bergstralh EJ, Melton LJ III, et al. Kidney stones and the risk for chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:804-11.
84. Rule AD, Roger VL, Melton LJ 3rd, et al. Kidney stones associate with increased risk for myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:1641-4.
85. Vupputuri S, Soucie JM, McClellan W, et al. History of kidney stones as a possible risk factor for chronic kidney disease. Ann Epidemiol 2004;14:222-8.
86. Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, et al. Body size and risk of kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998;9:1645-52.
87. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA 2005;293:455-62.
88. West B, Luke A, Durazo-Arvizu RA, et al. Metabolic syndrome and self-reported history of kidney stones: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) 1988-1994. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:741-7.
89. Manea A. NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species: involvement in vascular physiology and pathology. Cell Tissue Res 2010;342:325-39.
90. Wilcox CS. Reactive oxygen species: roles in blood pressure and kidney function. Curr Hypertens Rep 2002;4:160-6.
91. Wilcox CS, Welch WJ. Oxidative stress: cause or consequence of hypertension. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2001;226:619-20.
92. Rodríguez-Iturbe B, Vaziri ND, Herrera-Acosta J, et al. Oxidative stress, renal infiltration of immune cells, and salt-sensitive hypertension: all for one and one for all. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2004;286:F606-16.
93. Briones AM, Touyz RM. Oxidative stress and hypertension: current concepts. Curr Hypertens Rep 2010;12:135-42.
94. Furukawa S, Fujita T, Shimabukuro M, et al. Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest 2004;114:1752-61.
95. Otani H. Oxidative stress as pathogenesis of cardiovascular risk associated with metabolic syndrome. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011;15:1911-26.
96. Evans RG, Fitzgerald SM. Nitric oxide and superoxide in the renal medulla: a delicate balancing act. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2005;14:9-15.
97. Schreck C, O'Connor PM. NAD(P)H oxidase and renal epithelial ion transport. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011;300:R1023-9.
98. Chabrashvili T, Tojo A, Onozato ML, et al. Expression and cellular localization of classic NADPH oxidase subunits in the spontaneously hypertensive rat kidney. Hypertension 2002;39:269-74.
99. Schnackenberg CG, Welch WJ, Wilcox CS. Normalization of blood pressure and renal vascular resistance in SHR with a membrane-permeable superoxide dismutase mimetic: role of nitric oxide. Hypertension 1998;32:59-64.
100. Zalba G, Beaumont FJ, San Jose G, et al. Vascular NADH/NADPH oxidase is involved in enhanced superoxide production in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 2000;35:1055-61.
101. Grote K, Ortmann M, Salguero G, et al. Critical role for p47phox in renin-angiotensin system activation and blood pressure regulation. Cardiovasc Res 2006;71:596-605.
102. Landmesser U, Cai H, Dikalov S, et al. Role of p47(phox) in vascular oxidative stress and hypertension caused by angiotensin II. Hypertension 2002;40:511-5.
103. Zhou MS, Hernandez Schulman I, Pagano PJ, et al. Reduced NAD(P)H oxidase in low renin hypertension: link among angiotensin II, atherogenesis, and blood pressure. Hypertension 2006;47:81-6.
104. Taylor NE, Glocka P, Liang M, et al. NADPH oxidase in the renal medulla causes oxidative stress and contributes to salt-sensitive hypertension in Dahl S rats. Hypertension 2006;47:692-8.
105. Tian N, Moore RS, Phillips WE, et al. NADPH oxidase contributes to renal damage and dysfunction in Dahl salt-sensitive hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008;295:R1858-65.
106. Kanwar YS, Sun L, Xie P, et al. A glimpse of various pathogenetic mechanisms of diabetic nephropathy. Annu Rev Pathol 2011;6:395-423.
107. Giacco F, Brownlee M. Oxidative stress and diabetic complications. Circ Res 2010;107:1058-70.
108. Kakehi T, Yabe-Nishimura C. NOX enzymes and diabetic complications. Semin Immunopathol 2008;30:301-14.
109. Etoh T, Inoguchi T, Kakimoto M, et al. Increased expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits, NOX4 and p22phox, in the kidney of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and its reversibity by interventive insulin treatment. Diabetologia 2003;46:1428-37.
110. Asaba K, Tojo A, Onozato ML, et al. Effects of NADPH oxidase inhibitor in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 2005;67:1890-8.
111. Taylor EN, Fung TT, Curhan GC. DASH-style diet associates with reduced risk for kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2253-9.
112. Lopes HF, Martin KL, Nashar K, et al. DASH diet lowers blood pressure and lipid-induced oxidative stress in obesity. Hypertension 2003;41:422-30.
113. Al-Solaiman Y, Jesri A, Zhao Y, et al. Low-Sodium DASH reduces oxidative stress and improves vascular function in salt-sensitive humans. J Hum Hypertens 2009;23:826-35.
114. Holoch PA, Tracy CR. Antioxidants and self-reported history of kidney stones: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Endourol 2011;25:1903-8.
115. Khan SR. Reactive oxygen species as the molecular modulators of calcium oxalate kidney stone formation: evidence from clinical and experimental investigations. J Urol 2013;189:803-11.
116. Khan SR. Stress oxidative: nephrolithiasis and chronic kidney diseases. Minerva medica 2013;104:23-30.
117. Koul H, Kennington L, Nair G, et al. Oxalate-induced initiation of DNA synthesis in LLC-PK1 cells, a line of renal epithelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994;205:1632-7.
118. Koul H, Kennington L, Honeyman T, et al. Activation of c-myc gene mediates the mitogenic effects of oxalate in LLC-PK1 cells, a line of renal epithelial cells. Kidney Int 1996;50:1525-30.
119. Riese RJ, Mandel NS, Wiessner JH, et al. Cell polarity and calcium oxalate crystal adherence to cultured collecting duct cells. Am J Physiol 1992;262:F177-84.
120. Scheid C, Koul H, Hill WA, et al. Oxalate toxicity in LLC-PK1 cells, a line of renal epithelial cells. J Urol 1996;155:1112-6.
121. Verkoelen CF, van der Boom BG, Houtsmuller AB, et al. Increased calcium oxalate monohydrate crystal binding to injured renal tubular epithelial cells in culture. Am J Physiol 1998;274:F958-65.
122. Lieske JC, Norris R, Swift H, et al. Adhesion, internalization and metabolism of calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals by renal epithelial cells. Kidney Int 1997;52:1291-301.
123. Lieske JC, Norris R, Toback FG. Adhesion of hydroxyapatite crystals to anionic sites on the surface of renal epithelial cells. Am J Physiol 1997;273:F224-33.
124. Lieske JC, Deganello S. Nucleation, adhesion, and internalization of calcium-containing urinary crystals by renal cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10 Suppl 14:S422-9.
125. Lieske JC, Huang E, Toback FG. Regulation of renal epithelial cell affinity for calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2000;278:F130-7.
126. Lieske JC, Hammes MS, Toback FG. Role of calcium oxalate monohydrate crystal interactions with renal epithelial cells in the pathogenesis of nephrolithiasis: a review. Scanning Microsc 1996;10:519-33; discussion 533-4.
127. Lieske JC, Farell G, Deganello S. The effect of ions at the surface of calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals on cell-crystal interactions. Urol Res 2004;32:117-23.
128. Hammes MS, Lieske JC, Pawar S, et al. Calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals stimulate gene expression in renal epithelial cells. Kidney Int 1995;48:501-9.
129. Lieske JC, Hammes MS, Hoyer JR, et al. Renal cell osteopontin production is stimulated by calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals. Kidney Int 1997;51:679-86.
130. Iida S, Peck AB, Byer KJ, et al. Expression of bikunin mRNA in renal epithelial cells after oxalate exposure. J Urol 1999;162:1480-6.
131. Iida S, Peck AB, Johnson-Tardieu J, et al. Temporal changes in mRNA expression for bikunin in the kidneys of rats during calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10:986-96.
132. Umekawa T, Chegini N, Khan SR. Oxalate ions and calcium oxalate crystals stimulate MCP-1 expression by renal epithelial cells. Kidney Int 2002;61:105-12.
133. Umekawa T, Chegini N, Khan SR. Increased expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) by renal epithelial cells in culture on exposure to calcium oxalate, phosphate and uric acid crystals. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:664-9.
134. Umekawa T, Iguchi M, Uemura H, et al. Oxalate ions and calcium oxalate crystal-induced up-regulation of osteopontin and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in renal fibroblasts. BJU Int 2006;98:656-60.
135. Giachelli CM. Inducers and inhibitors of biomineralization: lessons from pathological calcification. Orthod Craniofac Res 2005;8:229-31.
136. Khan SR, Kok DJ. Modulators of urinary stone formation. Front Biosci 2004;9:1450-82.
137. Miyazawa K, Aihara K, Ikeda R, et al. cDNA macroarray analysis of genes in renal epithelial cells exposed to calcium oxalate crystals. Urol Res 2009;37:27-33.
138. Thamilselvan S, Byer KJ, Hackett RL, et al. Free radical scavengers, catalase and superoxide dismutase provide protection from oxalate-associated injury to LLC-PK1 and MDCK cells. J Urol 2000;164:224-9.
139. Thamilselvan S, Khan SR, Menon M. Oxalate and calcium oxalate mediated free radical toxicity in renal epithelial cells: effect of antioxidants. Urol Res 2003;31:3-9.
140. Aihara K, Byer KJ, Khan SR. Calcium phosphate-induced renal epithelial injury and stone formation: involvement of reactive oxygen species. Kidney Int 2003;64:1283-91.
141. Escobar C, Byer KJ, Khaskheli H, et al. Apatite induced renal epithelial injury: insight into the pathogenesis of kidney stones. J Urol 2008;180:379-87.
142. Gáspár S, Niculiţe C, Cucu D, et al. Effect of calcium oxalate on renal cells as revealed by real-time measurement of extracellular oxidative burst. Biosens Bioelectron 2010;25:1729-34.
143. Huang HS, Chen J, Chen CF, et al. Vitamin E attenuates crystal formation in rat kidneys: roles of renal tubular cell death and crystallization inhibitors. Kidney Int 2006;70:699-710.
144. Khan SR. Nephrocalcinosis in animal models with and without stones. Urol Res 2010;38:429-38.
145. Khan SR, Glenton PA. Experimental induction of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis in mice. J Urol 2010;184:1189-96.
146. Khan SR, Glenton PA, Byer KJ. Modeling of hyperoxaluric calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis: experimental induction of hyperoxaluria by hydroxy-L-proline. Kidney Int 2006;70:914-23.
147. Khan SR, Johnson JM, Peck AB, et al. Expression of osteopontin in rat kidneys: induction during ethylene glycol induced calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Urol 2002;168:1173-81.
148. Katsuma S, Shiojima S, Hirasawa A, et al. Global analysis of differentially expressed genes during progression of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002;296:544-52.
149. Gokhale JA, Glenton PA, Khan SR. Localization of tamm-horsfall protein and osteopontin in a rat nephrolithiasis model. Nephron 1996;73:456-61.
150. Gokhale JA, Glenton PA, Khan SR. Characterization of Tamm-Horsfall protein in a rat nephrolithiasis model. J Urol 2001;166:1492-7.
151. Moriyama MT, Glenton PA, Khan SR. Expression of inter-alpha inhibitor related proteins in kidneys and urine of hyperoxaluric rats. J Urol 2001;165:1687-92.
152. Grewal JS, Tsai JY, Khan SR. Oxalate-inducible AMBP gene and its regulatory mechanism in renal tubular epithelial cells. Biochem J 2005;387:609-16.
153. Suzuki K, Tanaka T, Miyazawa K, et al. Gene expression of prothrombin in human and rat kidneys: basic and clinical approach. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10 Suppl 14:S408-11.
154. Iida S, Inoue M, Yoshii S, et al. Molecular detection of heparan sulfate proteoglycan mRNA in rat kidney during calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10 Suppl 14:S412-6.
155. Yasui T, Fujita K, Sasaki S, et al. Expression of bone matrix proteins in urolithiasis model rats. Urol Res 1999;27:255-61.
156. Okada A, Yasui T, Fujii Y, et al. Renal macrophage migration and crystal phagocytosis via inflammatory-related gene expression during kidney stone formation and elimination in mice: Detection by association analysis of stone-related gene expression and microstructural observation. J Bone Miner Res 2010;25:2701-11.
157. Gokhale JA, McKee MD, Khan SR. Immunocytochemical localization of Tamm-Horsfall protein in the kidneys of normal and nephrolithic rats. Urol Res 1996;24:201-9.
158. Khan SR, Glenton PA, Byer KJ. Dietary oxalate and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Urol 2007;178:2191-6.
159. Iida S, Ishimatsu M, Chikama S, et al. Protective role of heparin/heparan sulfate on oxalate-induced changes in cell morphology and intracellular Ca2+. Urol Res 2003;31:198-206.
160. Khan SR, Shevock PN, Hackett RL. Acute hyperoxaluria, renal injury and calcium oxalate urolithiasis. J Urol 1992;147:226-30.
161. McKee MD, Nanci A, Khan SR. Ultrastructural immunodetection of osteopontin and osteocalcin as major matrix components of renal calculi. J Bone Miner Res 1995;10:1913-29.
162. Thamilselvan S, Hackett RL, Khan SR. Lipid peroxidation in ethylene glycol induced hyperoxaluria and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. J Urol 1997;157:1059-63.
163. Thamilselvan S, Menon M. Vitamin E therapy prevents hyperoxaluria-induced calcium oxalate crystal deposition in the kidney by improving renal tissue antioxidant status. BJU Int 2005;96:117-26.
164. Huang HS, Ma MC, Chen J, et al. Changes in the oxidant-antioxidant balance in the kidney of rats with nephrolithiasis induced by ethylene glycol. J Urol 2002;167:2584-93.
165. Chen DH, Kaung HL, Miller CM, et al. Microarray analysis of changes in renal phenotype in the ethylene glycol rat model of urolithiasis: potential and pitfalls. BJU Int 2004;94:637-50.
166. de Bruijn WC, Boeve ER, van Run PR, et al. Etiology of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis in rats. I. Can this be a model for human stone formation? Scanning Microsc 1995;9:103-14.
167. de Water R, Noordermeer C, van der Kwast TH, et al. Calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis: effect of renal crystal deposition on the cellular composition of the renal interstitium. Am J Kidney Dis 1999;33:761-71.
168. Kakizaki Y, Waga S, Sugimoto K, et al. Production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 by bovine glomerular endothelial cells. Kidney Int 1995;48:1866-74.
169. Diamond JR, Kees-Folts D, Ding G, et al. Macrophages, monocyte chemoattractant peptide-1, and TGF-beta 1 in experimental hydronephrosis. Am J Physiol 1994;266:F926-33.
170. Wung BS, Cheng JJ, Chao YJ, et al. Cyclical strain increases monocyte chemotactic protein-1 secretion in human endothelial cells. Am J Physiol 1996;270:H1462-8.
171. Satriano JA, Shuldiner M, Hora K, et al. Oxygen radicals as second messengers for expression of the monocyte chemoattractant protein, JE/MCP-1, and the monocyte colony-stimulating factor, CSF-1, in response to tumor necrosis factor-alpha and immunoglobulin G. Evidence for involvement of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent oxidase. J Clin Invest 1993;92:1564-71.
172. Moe SM, Chen NX. Mechanisms of vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:213-6.
173. Shanahan CM. Vascular calcification. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2005;14:361-7.
174. Briet M, Burns KD. Chronic kidney disease and vascular remodelling: molecular mechanisms and clinical implications. Clin Sci (Lond) 2012;123:399-416.
175. Jono S, McKee MD, Murry CE, et al. Phosphate regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. Circ Res 2000;87:E10-7.
176. Kapustin AN, Davies JD, Reynolds JL, et al. Calcium regulates key components of vascular smooth muscle cell-derived matrix vesicles to enhance mineralization. Circ Res 2011;109:e1-12.
177. Kapustin AN, Shanahan CM. Calcium regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell-derived matrix vesicles. Trends in cardiovascular medicine 2012;22:133-7.
178. Shanahan CM, Crouthamel MH, Kapustin A, et al. Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: key roles for calcium and phosphate. Circ Res 2011;109:697-711.
179. Shroff RC, Shanahan CM. The vascular biology of calcification. Seminars in dialysis 2007;20:103-9.
180. Jono S, Shioi A, Ikari Y, et al. Vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Journal of bone and mineral metabolism 2006;24:176-81.
181. Schoppet M, Shroff RC, Hofbauer LC, et al. Exploring the biology of vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: what's circulating? Kidney Int 2008;73:384-90.
182. Murshed M, McKee MD. Molecular determinants of extracellular matrix mineralization in bone and blood vessels. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2010;19:359-65.
183. Byon CH, Javed A, Dai Q, et al. Oxidative stress induces vascular calcification through modulation of the osteogenic transcription factor Runx2 by AKT signaling. J Biol Chem 2008;283:15319-27.
184. Sun Y, Byon CH, Yuan K, et al. Smooth muscle cell-specific runx2 deficiency inhibits vascular calcification. Circ Res 2012;111:543-52.
185. Tada Y, Yano S, Yamaguchi T, et al. Advanced glycation end products-induced vascular calcification is mediated by oxidative stress: functional roles of NAD(P)H-oxidase. Horm Metab Res 2013;45:267-72.
186. Watson KE, Bostrom K, Ravindranath R, et al. TGF-beta 1 and 25-hydroxycholesterol stimulate osteoblast-like vascular cells to calcify. J Clin Invest 1994;93:2106-13.
187. Irwin CL, Guzman RJ. Matrix metalloproteinases in medial arterial calcification: potential mechanisms and actions. Vascular 2009;17 Suppl 1:S40-4.
188. Pai A, Leaf EM, El-Abbadi M, et al. Elastin degradation and vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype change precede cell loss and arterial medial calcification in a uremic mouse model of chronic kidney disease. Am J Pathol 2011;178:764-73.
189. Basalyga DM, Simionescu DT, Xiong W, et al. Elastin degradation and calcification in an abdominal aorta injury model: role of matrix metalloproteinases. Circulation 2004;110:3480-7.
190. Vyavahare N, Jones PL, Tallapragada S, et al. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase activity attenuates tenascin-C production and calcification of implanted purified elastin in rats. Am J Pathol 2000;157:885-93.
191. Schurgers LJ, Cranenburg EC, Vermeer C. Matrix Gla-protein: the calcification inhibitor in need of vitamin K. Thrombosis and haemostasis 2008;100:593-603.
192. Shanahan CM, Proudfoot D, Farzaneh-Far A, et al. The role of Gla proteins in vascular calcification. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr 1998;8:357-75.
193. Meier M, Weng LP, Alexandrakis E, et al. Tracheobronchial stenosis in Keutel syndrome. Eur Respir J 2001;17:566-9.
194. Luo G, Ducy P, McKee M, et al. Spontaneous calcification of arteries and cartilage in mice lacking matrix GLA protein. Nature 1997;386:78-81.
195. Murshed M, Schinke T, McKee M, et al. Extracellular matrix mineralization is regulated locally; different roles of two gla-containing proteins. J Cell Biol 2004;165:625-30.
196. Farzaneh-Far A, Davies JD, Braam LA, et al. A polymorphism of the human matrix gamma-carboxyglutamic acid protein promoter alters binding of an activating protein-1 complex and is associated with altered transcription and serum levels. J Biol Chem 2001;276:32466-73.
197. Herrmann SM, Whatling C, Brand E, et al. Polymorphisms of the human matrix gla protein (MGP) gene, vascular calcification, and myocardial infarction. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:2386-93.
198. Herrmann M, Kinkeldey A, Jahnen-Dechent W. Fetuin-A function in systemic mineral metabolism. Trends in cardiovascular medicine 2012;22:197-201.
199. Jahnen-Dechent W, Heiss A, Schafer C, et al. Fetuin-A regulation of calcified matrix metabolism. Circ Res 2011;108:1494-509.
200. Jahnen-Dechent W, Schäfer C, Ketteler M, et al. Mineral chaperones: a role for fetuin-A and osteopontin in the inhibition and regression of pathologic calcification. J Mol Med (Berl) 2008;86:379-89.
201. Schinke T, Amendt C, Trindl A, et al. The serum protein alpha2-HS glycoprotein/fetuin inhibits apatite formation in vitro and in mineralizing calvaria cells. A possible role in mineralization and calcium homeostasis. J Biol Chem 1996;271:20789-96.
202. Ketteler M, Wanner C, Metzger T, et al. Deficiencies of calcium-regulatory proteins in dialysis patients: a novel concept of cardiovascular calcification in uremia. Kidney Int Suppl 2003:S84-7.
203. Leskinen Y, Lehtimaki T, Loimaala A, et al. Carotid atherosclerosis in chronic renal failure-the central role of increased plaque burden. Atherosclerosis 2003;171:295-302.
204. Russo D, Morrone LF, Brancaccio S, et al. Pulse pressure and presence of coronary artery calcification. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:316-22.
205. Qunibi WY. Cardiovascular calcification in nondialyzed patients with chronic kidney disease. Seminars in dialysis 2007;20:134-8.
206. Pelisek J, Assadian A, Sarkar O, et al. Carotid plaque composition in chronic kidney disease: a retrospective analysis of patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2010;39:11-6.
207. Pelisek J, Hahntow IN, Eckstein HH, et al. Impact of chronic kidney disease on carotid plaque vulnerability. Journal of vascular surgery 2011;54:1643-9.
208. Joghetaei N, Akhyari P, Rauch BH, et al. Extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (CD147) and membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase are expressed on tissue macrophages in calcific aortic stenosis and induce transmigration in an artificial valve model. The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery 2011;142:191-8.
209. Lenglet S, Mach F, Montecucco F. Role of matrix metalloproteinase-8 in atherosclerosis. Mediators Inflamm 2013;2013:659282.
210. Gambaro G, D'Angelo A, Fabris A, et al. Crystals, Randall's plaques and renal stones: do bone and atherosclerosis teach us something? J Nephrol 2004;17:774-7.
211. Khan A, Wang W, Khan SR. Calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis and expression of matrix GLA protein in the kidneys. World J Urol 2014;32:123-30.
212. Canales BK, Anderson L, Higgins L, et al. Proteomic analysis of a matrix stone: a case report. Urol Res 2009;37:323-9.
213. Kumar V, Farell G, Yu S, et al. Cell biology of pathologic renal calcification: contribution of crystal transcytosis, cell-mediated calcification, and nanoparticles. J Investig Med 2006;54:412-24.
214. Liu Y. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition in renal fibrogenesis: pathologic significance, molecular mechanism, and therapeutic intervention. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:1-12.
215. Zeisberg M, Bonner G, Maeshima Y, et al. Renal fibrosis: collagen composition and assembly regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation. Am J Pathol 2001;159:1313-21.
216. Shoshani O, Zipori D. Transition of endothelium to cartilage and bone. Cell stem cell 2011;8:10-1.
217. Stejskal D, Karpisek M, Vrtal R, et al. Urine fetuin-A values in relation to the presence of urolithiasis. BJU Int 2008;101:1151-4.
218. Salama RH, Alghasham A, Mostafa MS, et al. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 will be a novel biochemical marker in urinary tract infections and stone formation. Clin Biochem 2012;45:766-9.
219. Gao B, Yasui T, Itoh Y, et al. A polymorphism of matrix Gla protein gene is associated with kidney stones. J Urol 2007;177:2361-5.
220. Lu X, Gao B, Liu Z, et al. A polymorphism of matrix Gla protein gene is associated with kidney stone in the Chinese Han population. Gene 2012;511:127-30.
221. Khan SR, Glenton PA, Backov R, et al. Presence of lipids in urine, crystals and stones: implications for the formation of kidney stones. Kidney Int 2002;62:2062-72.
222. Khan SR, Shevock PN, Hackett RL. Membrane-associated crystallization of calcium oxalate in vitro. Calcif Tissue Int 1990;46:116-20.
223. Fasano JM, Khan SR. Intratubular crystallization of calcium oxalate in the presence of membrane vesicles: an in vitro study. Kidney Int 2001;59:169-78.
224. Fink HA, Wilt TJ, Eidman KE, et al. Medical management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: a systematic review for an american college of physicians clinical guideline. Ann Intern Med 2013;158:535-43.
225. Borghi L, Schianchi T, Meschi T, et al. Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 2002;346:77-84.
226. Coe FL, Keck J, Norton ER. The natural history of calcium urolithiasis. JAMA 1977;238:1519-23.
227. Lipkin ME, Preminger GM. Demystifying the medical management of nephrolithiasis. Reviews in urology 2011;13:34-8.
228. Raynal G, Petit J, Saint F. Which efficiency index for urinary stones treatment? Urol Res 2009;37:237-9.
229. Shanahan CM. Mechanisms of vascular calcification in renal disease. Clin Nephrol 2005;63:146-57.
230. Shanahan CM. Vascular calcification--a matter of damage limitation? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:1166-9.
231. Umekawa T, Tsuji H, Uemura H, et al. Superoxide from NADPH oxidase as second messenger for the expression of osteopontin and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in renal epithelial cells exposed to calcium oxalate crystals. BJU Int 2009;104:115-20.
232. Thamilselvan V, Menon M, Thamilselvan S. Oxalate-induced activation of PKC-alpha and -delta regulates NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative injury in renal tubular epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2009;297:F1399-410.
233. Rashed T, Menon M, Thamilselvan S. Molecular mechanism of oxalate-induced free radical production and glutathione redox imbalance in renal epithelial cells: effect of antioxidants. Am J Nephrol 2004;24:557-68.
234. Thamilselvan V, Menon M, Thamilselvan S. Selective Rac1 inhibition protects renal tubular epithelial cells from oxalate-induced NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative cell injury. Urol Res 2012;40:415-23.
235. Koul HK, Menon M, Chaturvedi LS, et al. COM crystals activate the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathway in renal epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 2002;277:36845-52.
236. Chaturvedi LS, Koul S, Sekhon A, et al. Oxalate selectively activates p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signal transduction pathways in renal epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 2002;277:13321-30.
237. Toblli JE, Cao G, Casas G, et al. NF-kappaB and chemokine-cytokine expression in renal tubulointerstitium in experimental hyperoxaluria. Role of the renin-angiotensin system. Urol Res 2005;33:358-67.
238. Jonassen JA, Cao LC, Honeyman T, et al. Mechanisms mediating oxalate-induced alterations in renal cell functions. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr 2003;13:55-72.
239. Celie JW, Reijmers RM, Slot EM, et al. Tubulointerstitial heparan sulfate proteoglycan changes in human renal diseases correlate with leukocyte influx and proteinuria. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2008;294:F253-63.
240. Capon C, Mizon C, Lemoine J, et al. In acute inflammation, the chondroitin-4 sulphate carried by bikunin is not only longer, it is also undersulphated. Biochimie 2003;85:101-7.
241. Mizon C, Piva F, Queyrel V, et al. Urinary bikunin determination provides insight into proteinase/proteinase inhibitor imbalance in patients with inflammatory diseases. Clin Chem Lab Med 2002;40:579-86.
242. Balduyck M, Albani D, Jourdain M, et al. Inflammation-induced systemic proteolysis of inter-alpha-inhibitor in plasma from patients with sepsis. J Lab Clin Med 2000;135:188-98.
243. Rampoldi L, Scolari F, Amoroso A, et al. The rediscovery of uromodulin (Tamm-Horsfall protein): from tubulointerstitial nephropathy to chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2011;80:338-47.
244. Urtasun R, Lopategi A, George J, et al. Osteopontin, an oxidant stress sensitive cytokine, up-regulates collagen-I via integrin α(V)β(3) engagement and PI3K/pAkt/NFκB signaling. Hepatology 2012;55:594-608.
245. Mazzali M, Kipari T, Ophascharoensuk V, et al. Osteopontin--a molecule for all seasons. QJM 2002;95:3-13.
246. Okada A, Yasui T, Hamamoto S, et al. Genome-wide analysis of genes related to kidney stone formation and elimination in the calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis model mouse: detection of stone-preventive factors and involvement of macrophage activity. J Bone Miner Res 2009;24:908-24.
247. Escobar C, Byer KJ, Khan SR. Naturally produced crystals obtained from kidney stones are less injurious to renal tubular epithelial cells than synthetic crystals. BJU Int 2007;100:891-7.
248. Ryall RL. The future of stone research: rummagings in the attic, Randall's plaque, nanobacteria, and lessons from phylogeny. Urol Res 2008;36:77-97.
249. Talham DR, Backov R, Benitez IO, et al. Role of lipids in urinary stones: studies of calcium oxalate precipitation at phospholipid langmuir monolayers. Langmuir 2006;22:2450-6.
250. Asselman M, Verhulst A, De Broe ME, et al. Calcium oxalate crystal adherence to hyaluronan-, osteopontin-, and CD44-expressing injured/regenerating tubular epithelial cells in rat kidneys. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14:3155-66.
251. Khan SR. Experimental calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis and the formation of human urinary stones. Scanning Microsc 1995;9:89-100; discussion 100-101.
252. Khan SR. Calcium oxalate crystal interaction with renal tubular epithelium, mechanism of crystal adhesion and its impact on stone development. Urol Res 1995;23:71-9.
253. Naito Y, Ohtawara Y, Kageyama S, et al. Morphological analysis of renal cell culture models of calcium phosphate stone formation. Urol Res 1997;25:59-65.
254. Senzaki H, Yasui T, Okada A, et al. Alendronate inhibits urinary calcium microlith formation in a three-dimensional culture model. Urol Res 2004;32:223-8.
255. Zeisberg M, Strutz F, Muller GA. Renal fibrosis: an update. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2001;10:315-20.
256. Gower LB. Biomimetic model systems for investigating the amorphous precursor pathway and its role in biomineralization. Chem Rev 2008;108:4551-627.
257. Habibovic P, Bassett DC, Doillon CJ, et al. Collagen biomineralization in vivo by sustained release of inorganic phosphate ions. Adv Mater 2010;22:1858-62.
258. Coe FL, Evan AP, Worcester EM, et al. Three pathways for human kidney stone formation. Urol Res 2010;38:147-60.