Ventilator-associated pneumonia

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 469-481

  Bassi, Gianluigi Li ^a,b,c   Ferrer, Miquel ^a,b,c   Marti, Joan Daniel ^a   Comaru, Talitha ^a   Torres, Antoni ^a,b,c  

^a HOSPITAL CLÍNIC   (Spain)

^b INSTITUT D INVESTIGACIONS BIOMÈDIQUES AUGUST PI I SUNYER IDIBAPS   (Spain)

^c INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III   (Spain)

Author keywords

endotracheal tube; mechanical ventilation; nosocomial pneumonia; pseudomonas aeruginosa; ventilator associated pneumonia

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

ADVERSE EFFECTS; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; CROSS INFECTION; ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION; HUMAN; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; LENGTH OF STAY; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIOLOGY; PNEUMONIA, VENTILATOR-ASSOCIATED; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; PSEUDOMONAS INFECTIONS; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; TIME;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CROSS INFECTION; HUMANS; INTUBATION, INTRATRACHEAL; LENGTH OF STAY; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; PNEUMONIA, VENTILATOR-ASSOCIATED; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; PSEUDOMONAS INFECTIONS; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 84905903150     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1384752     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2005; 171 4 388 416
2. Magill S. S., Klompas M., Balk R., et al. Developing a new, national approach to surveillance for ventilator-associated events. Crit Care Med: 2013; 41 11 2467 2475
3. Reignier J., Mercier E., Le Gouge A., et al. Clinical Research in Intensive Care and Sepsis (CRICS) Group. Effect of not monitoring residual gastric volume on risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults receiving mechanical ventilation and early enteral feeding: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: 2013; 309 3 249 256
4. Seguin P., Laviolle B., Dahyot-Fizelier C., et al. Study of Povidone Iodine to Reduce Pulmonary Infection in Head Trauma and Cerebral Hemorrhage Patients (SPIRIT) ICU Study Group; AtlanRéa Group. Effect of oropharyngeal povidone-iodine preventive oral care on ventilator-associated pneumonia in severely brain-injured or cerebral hemorrhage patients: a multicenter, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med: 2014; 42 1 1 8
5. Lorente L., Lecuona M., Jiménez A., et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia with or without toothbrushing: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: 2012; 31 10 2621 2629
6. Leblebicioglu H., Yalcin A. N., Rosenthal V. D., et al. Effectiveness of a multidimensional approach for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in 11 adult intensive care units from 10 cities of Turkey: findings of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC). Infection: 2013; 41 2 447 456
7. Dudeck M. A., Horan T. C., Peterson K. D., et al. National Healthcare Safety Network report, data summary for 2011, device-associated module. Am J Infect Control: 2013; 41 4 286 300
8. Blot S., Koulenti D., Dimopoulos G., et al. EU-VAP Study Investigators. Prevalence, risk factors, and mortality for ventilator-associated pneumonia in middle-aged, old, and very old critically ill patients. Crit Care Med: 2014; 42 3 601 609
9. Koulenti D., Lisboa T., Brun-Buisson C., et al. EU-VAP/CAP Study Group. Spectrum of practice in the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia in patients requiring mechanical ventilation in European intensive care units. Crit Care Med: 2009; 37 8 2360 2368
10. Forel J. M., Voillet F., Pulina D., et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia and ICU mortality in severe ARDS patients ventilated according to a lung-protective strategy. Crit Care: 2012; 16 2 R65
11. Kollef M. H., Hamilton C. W., Ernst F. R. Economic impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large matched cohort. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol: 2012; 33 3 250 256
12. Rello J., Ollendorf D. A., Oster G., et al. VAP Outcomes Scientific Advisory Group. Epidemiology and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large US database. Chest: 2002; 122 6 2115 2121 (Pubitemid 36051151)
13. Warren D. K., Shukla S. J., Olsen M. A., et al. Outcome and attributable cost of ventilator-associated pneumonia among intensive care unit patients in a suburban medical center. Crit Care Med: 2003; 31 5 1312 1317 (Pubitemid 36583837)
14. Melsen W. G., Rovers M. M., Groenwold R. H., et al. Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomised prevention studies. Lancet Infect Dis: 2013; 13 8 665 671
15. Bekaert M., Timsit J. F., Vansteelandt S., et al. Outcomerea Study Group. Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a reappraisal using causal analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2011; 184 10 1133 1139
16. Kollef M. H., Silver P., Murphy D. M., Trovillion E. The effect of late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia in determining patient mortality. Chest: 1995; 108 6 1655 1662
17. Lisboa T., Diaz E., Sa-Borges M., et al. The ventilator-associated pneumonia PIRO score: a tool for predicting ICU mortality and health-care resources use in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 2008; 134 6 1208 1216
18. Esperatti M., Ferrer M., Giunta V., et al. Validation of predictors of adverse outcomes in hospital-acquired pneumonia in the ICU. Crit Care Med: 2013; 41 9 2151 2161
19. Zimlichman E., Henderson D., Tamir O., et al. Health care-associated infections: a meta-analysis of costs and financial impact on the US health care system. JAMA Intern Med: 2013; 173 22 2039 2046
20. Gal T. J. Effects of endotracheal intubation on normal cough performance. Anesthesiology: 1980; 52 4 324 329 (Pubitemid 10134085)
21. Konrad F., Schreiber T., Brecht-Kraus D., Georgieff M. Mucociliary transport in ICU patients. Chest: 1994; 105 1 237 241 (Pubitemid 24029109)
22. Meisel C., Schefold J. C., Pschowski R., et al. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor to reverse sepsis-associated immunosuppression: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2009; 180 7 640 648
23. Leentjens J., Kox M., Koch R. M., et al. Reversal of immunoparalysis in humans in vivo: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized pilot study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2012; 186 9 838 845
24. DiazGranados C. A., Jones M. Y., Kongphet-Tran T., et al. Outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection associated with contamination of a flexible bronchoscope. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol: 2009; 30 6 550 555
25. Guyot A., Turton J. F., Garner D. Outbreak of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia on an intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect: 2013; 85 4 303 307
26. Kikuchi T., Nagashima G., Taguchi K., et al. Contaminated oral intubation equipment associated with an outbreak of carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas in an intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect: 2007; 65 1 54 57 (Pubitemid 44932968)
27. Bou R., Ramos P. Outbreak of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease caused by a contaminated oxygen humidifier. J Hosp Infect: 2009; 71 4 381 383
28. Rogues A. M., Maugein J., Allery A., et al. Electronic ventilator temperature sensors as a potential source of respiratory tract colonization with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. J Hosp Infect: 2001; 49 4 289 292
29. Pegues C. F., Pegues D. A., Ford D. S., et al. Burkholderia cepacia respiratory tract acquisition: epidemiology and molecular characterization of a large nosocomial outbreak. Epidemiol Infect: 1996; 116 3 309 317
30. Enoch D. A., Summers C., Brown N. M., et al. Investigation and management of an outbreak of multidrug-carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in Cambridge, UK. J Hosp Infect: 2008; 70 2 109 118
31. Johanson W. G. Jr, Pierce A. K., Sanford J. P., Thomas G. D. Nosocomial respiratory infections with gram-negative bacilli. The significance of colonization of the respiratory tract. Ann Intern Med: 1972; 77 5 701 706
32. Johanson W. G., Pierce A. K., Sanford J. P. Changing pharyngeal bacterial flora of hospitalized patients. Emergence of gram-negative bacilli. N Engl J Med: 1969; 281 21 1137 1140
33. Feldman C., Kassel M., Cantrell J., et al. The presence and sequence of endotracheal tube colonization in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. Eur Respir J: 1999; 13 3 546 551 (Pubitemid 29180163)
34. Li Bassi G., Ranzani O. T., Marti J. D., et al. An in vitro study to assess determinant features associated with fluid sealing in the design of endotracheal tube cuffs and exerted tracheal pressures. Crit Care Med: 2013; 41 2 518 526
35. Ouanes I., Lyazidi A., Danin P. E., et al. Mechanical influences on fluid leakage past the tracheal tube cuff in a benchtop model. Intensive Care Med: 2011; 37 4 695 700
36. Pitts R., Fisher D., Sulemanji D., Kratohvil J., Jiang Y., Kacmarek R. Variables affecting leakage past endotracheal tube cuffs: a bench study. Intensive Care Med: 2010; 36 12 2066 2073
37. Lucangelo U., Zin W. A., Antonaglia V., et al. Effect of positive expiratory pressure and type of tracheal cuff on the incidence of aspiration in mechanically ventilated patients in an intensive care unit. Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 2 409 413 (Pubitemid 351158612)
38. De Souza P. R., De Andrade D., Cabral D. B., Watanabe E. Endotracheal tube biofilm and ventilator-associated pneumonia with mechanical ventilation. Microsc Res Tech: 2014; 77 4 305 312
39. Gil-Perotin S., Ramirez P., Marti V., et al. Implications of endotracheal tube biofilm in ventilator-associated pneumonia response: a state of concept. Crit Care: 2012; 16 3 R93
40. Hoiby N., Ciofu O., Johansen H. K., et al. The clinical impact of bacterial biofilms. Int J Oral Sci: 2011; 3 2 55 65
41. Fux C. A., Stoodley P., Hall-Stoodley L., Costerton J. W. Bacterial biofilms: a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther: 2003; 1 4 667 683 (Pubitemid 38855130)
42. Fux C. A., Costerton J. W., Stewart P. S., Stoodley P. Survival strategies of infectious biofilms. Trends Microbiol: 2005; 13 1 34 40 (Pubitemid 40082395)
43. Inglis T. J., Millar M. R., Jones J. G., Robinson D. A. Tracheal tube biofilm as a source of bacterial colonization of the lung. J Clin Microbiol: 1989; 27 9 2014 2018 (Pubitemid 19208985)
44. Ng K. S., Kumarasinghe G., Inglis T. J. Dissemination of respiratory secretions during tracheal tube suctioning in an intensive care unit. Ann Acad Med Singapore: 1999; 28 2 178 182
45. Aas J. A., Paster B. J., Stokes L. N., Olsen I., Dewhirst F. E. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol: 2005; 43 11 5721 5732 (Pubitemid 41612354)
46. Tenovuo J. Antimicrobial function of human saliva-how important is it for oral health? Acta Odontol Scand: 1998; 56 5 250 256 (Pubitemid 128514076)
47. Edgerton M., Koshlukova S. E. Salivary histatin 5 and its similarities to the other antimicrobial proteins in human saliva. Adv Dent Res: 2000; 14 16 21
48. Caccavo D., Pellegrino N. M., Altamura M., et al. Antimicrobial and immunoregulatory functions of lactoferrin and its potential therapeutic application. J Endotoxin Res: 2002; 8 6 403 417 (Pubitemid 36104594)
49. De Smet K., Contreras R. Human antimicrobial peptides: defensins, cathelicidins and histatins. Biotechnol Lett: 2005; 27 18 1337 1347 (Pubitemid 41805626)
50. Terezakis E., Needleman I., Kumar N., Moles D., Agudo E. The impact of hospitalization on oral health: a systematic review. J Clin Periodontol: 2011; 38 7 628 636
51. Fourrier F., Duvivier B., Boutigny H., Roussel-Delvallez M., Chopin C. Colonization of dental plaque: a source of nosocomial infections in intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med: 1998; 26 2 301 308 (Pubitemid 28082693)
52. Golin V., Mimica I. M., Mimica L. M. Oropharynx microbiota among alcoholics and non-alcoholics. Sao Paulo Med J: 1998; 116 3 1727 1733
53. Mackowiak P. A., Martin R. M., Smith J. W. The role of bacterial interference in the increased prevalence of oropharyngeal gram-negative bacilli among alcoholics and diabetics. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1979; 120 3 589 593 (Pubitemid 10230201)
54. Scannapieco F. A., Bush R. B., Paju S. Associations between periodontal disease and risk for nosocomial bacterial pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A systematic review. Ann Periodontol: 2003; 8 1 54 69
55. Leibovitz A., Plotnikov G., Habot B., et al. Saliva secretion and oral flora in prolonged nasogastric tube-fed elderly patients. Isr Med Assoc J: 2003; 5 5 329 332 (Pubitemid 36681860)
56. Michishige F., Yoshinaga S., Harada E., et al. Relationships between activity of daily living, and oral cavity care and the number of oral cavity microorganisms in patients with cerebrovascular diseases. J Med Invest: 1999; 46 1-2 79 85 (Pubitemid 129619458)
57. Helovuo H., Hakkarainen K., Paunio K. Changes in the prevalence of subgingival enteric rods, staphylococci and yeasts after treatment with penicillin and erythromycin. Oral Microbiol Immunol: 1993; 8 2 75 79
58. Dennesen P., van der Ven A., Vlasveld M., et al. Inadequate salivary flow and poor oral mucosal status in intubated intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med: 2003; 31 3 781 786 (Pubitemid 36379583)
59. Scannapieco F. A. Role of oral bacteria in respiratory infection. J Periodontol: 1999; 70 7 793 802
60. Quinn M. O., Miller V. E., Dal Nogare A. R. Increased salivary exoglycosidase activity during critical illness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1994; 150 1 179 183 (Pubitemid 24209956)
61. Weinmeister K. D., Dal Nogare A. R. Buccal cell carbohydrates are altered during critical illness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1994; 150 1 131 134 (Pubitemid 24209948)
62. Gibbons R. J., Hay D. I., Childs W. C. III, Davis G. Role of cryptic receptors (cryptitopes) in bacterial adhesion to oral surfaces. Arch Oral Biol: 1990; 35 (Suppl): 107S 114S
63. Heyland D. K., Cook D. J., Schoenfeld P. S., Frietag A., Varon J., Wood G.; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The effect of acidified enteral feeds on gastric colonization in critically ill patients: results of a multicenter randomized trial. Crit Care Med: 1999; 27 11 2399 2406
64. Torres A., El-Ebiary M., Soler N., Montón C., Fàbregas N., Hernández C. Stomach as a source of colonization of the respiratory tract during mechanical ventilation: association with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J: 1996; 9 8 1729 1735 (Pubitemid 26271161)
65. Torres A., Serra-Batlles J., Ros E., et al. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med: 1992; 116 7 540 543
66. Ferrer M., Bauer T. T., Torres A., Hernández C., Piera C. Effect of nasogastric tube size on gastroesophageal reflux and microaspiration in intubated patients. Ann Intern Med: 1999; 130 12 991 994 (Pubitemid 29283990)
67. Di Pasquale M., Ferrer M., Esperatti M., et al. Assessment of severity of ICU-acquired pneumonia and association with etiology. Crit Care Med: 2014; 42 2 303 312
68. Esperatti M., Ferrer M., Theessen A., et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in the intensive care unit acquired by mechanically ventilated versus nonventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2010; 182 12 1533 1539
69. Combes A., Figliolini C., Trouillet J. L., et al. Incidence and outcome of polymicrobial ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 2002; 121 5 1618 1623 (Pubitemid 34499679)
70. Teixeira P. J., Seligman R., Hertz F. T., Cruz D. B., Fachel J. M. Inadequate treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia: risk factors and impact on outcomes. J Hosp Infect: 2007; 65 4 361 367 (Pubitemid 46485289)
71. Makris D., Desrousseaux B., Zakynthinos E., Durocher A., Nseir S. The impact of COPD on ICU mortality in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir Med: 2011; 105 7 1022 1029
72. Nseir S., Ader F., Lubret R., Marquette C. H. Pathophysiology of airway colonization in critically ill COPD patient. Curr Drug Targets: 2011; 12 4 514 520
73. Fagon J. Y., Chastre J. Diagnosis and treatment of nosocomial pneumonia in ALI/ARDS patients. Eur Respir J Suppl: 2003; 42 77s 83s (Pubitemid 36975741)
74. Lepelletier D., Roquilly A., Demeure dit latte D., et al. Retrospective analysis of the risk factors and pathogens associated with early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia in surgical-ICU head-trauma patients. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol: 2010; 22 1 32 37
75. Pelosi P., Barassi A., Severgnini P., et al. Prognostic role of clinical and laboratory criteria to identify early ventilator-associated pneumonia in brain injury. Chest: 2008; 134 1 101 108 (Pubitemid 352008770)
76. Nseir S., Blazejewski C., Lubret R., Wallet F., Courcol R., Durocher A. Risk of acquiring multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli from prior room occupants in the intensive care unit. Clin Microbiol Infect: 2011; 17 8 1201 1208
77. Rello J., Sa-Borges M., Correa H., Leal S. R., Baraibar J. Variations in etiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia across four treatment sites: implications for antimicrobial prescribing practices. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1999; 160 2 608 613 (Pubitemid 29380680)
78. Delisle M. S., Williamson D. R., Albert M., et al. Impact of Candida species on clinical outcomes in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Can Respir J: 2011; 18 3 131 136
79. Ong D. S., Mc Klein Klouwenberg P., Spitoni C., Bonten M. J., Cremer O. L. Nebulised amphotericin B to eradicate Candida colonisation from the respiratory tract in critically ill patients receiving selective digestive decontamination: a cohort study. Crit Care: 2013; 17 5 R233
80. Hamet M., Pavon A., Dalle F., et al. Candida spp. airway colonization could promote antibiotic-resistant bacteria selection in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med: 2012; 38 8 1272 1279
81. Luyt C. E., Bréchot N., Chastre J. What role do viruses play in nosocomial pneumonia? Curr Opin Infect Dis: 2014; 27 2 194 199
82. Sinuff T., Muscedere J., Cook D. J., et al. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Implementation of clinical practice guidelines for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter prospective study. Crit Care Med: 2013; 41 1 15 23
83. Bouadma L., Mourvillier B., Deiler V., et al. A multifaceted program to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: impact on compliance with preventive measures. Crit Care Med: 2010; 38 3 789 796
84. Barrera L., Zingg W., Mendez F., Pittet D. Effectiveness of a hand hygiene promotion strategy using alcohol-based handrub in 6 intensive care units in Colombia. Am J Infect Control: 2011; 39 8 633 639
85. Slekovec C., Gbaguidi-Haore H., Coignard B., Bertrand X., Talon D. Relationship between prevalence of device-associated infections and alcohol-based hand-rub consumption: a multi-level approach. J Hosp Infect: 2011; 78 2 133 137
86. Koff M. D., Corwin H. L., Beach M. L., Surgenor S. D., Loftus R. W. Reduction in ventilator associated pneumonia in a mixed intensive care unit after initiation of a novel hand hygiene program. J Crit Care: 2011; 26 5 489 495
87. Kollef M. H., Von Harz B., Prentice D., et al. Patient transport from intensive care increases the risk of developing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 1997; 112 3 765 773 (Pubitemid 27410716)
88. Bercault N., Wolf M., Runge I., Fleury J. C., Boulain T. Intrahospital transport of critically ill ventilated patients: a risk factor for ventilator-associated pneumonia-a matched cohort study. Crit Care Med: 2005; 33 11 2471 2478 (Pubitemid 41682097)
89. Kress J. P., Pohlman A. S., O'Connor M. F., Hall J. B. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med: 2000; 342 20 1471 1477 (Pubitemid 30318270)
90. Schweickert W. D., Pohlman M. C., Pohlman A. S., et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet: 2009; 373 9678 1874 1882
91. Hilbert G., Gruson D., Vargas F., et al. Noninvasive ventilation in immunosuppressed patients with pulmonary infiltrates, fever, and acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med: 2001; 344 7 481 487 (Pubitemid 32164899)
92. Brochard L., Mancebo J., Wysocki M., et al. Noninvasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med: 1995; 333 13 817 822
93. Burns K. E., Meade M. O., Premji A., Adhikari N. K. Noninvasive ventilation as a weaning strategy for mechanical ventilation in adults with respiratory failure: a Cochrane systematic review. CMAJ: 2014; 186 3 E112 E122
94. Dullenkopf A., Gerber A., Weiss M. Fluid leakage past tracheal tube cuffs: evaluation of the new Microcuff endotracheal tube. Intensive Care Med: 2003; 29 10 1849 1853 (Pubitemid 37373839)
95. Zanella A., Cressoni M., Epp M., Stylianou M., Kolobow T. A double-layer tracheal tube cuff designed to prevent leakage: a bench-top study. Intensive Care Med: 2008; 34 6 1145 1149 (Pubitemid 351903790)
96. Young P. J., Burchett K., Harvey I., Blunt M. C. The prevention of pulmonary aspiration with control of tracheal wall pressure using a silicone cuff. Anaesth Intensive Care: 2000; 28 6 660 665 (Pubitemid 32007680)
97. Lorente L., Lecuona M., Jiménez A., Mora M. L., Sierra A. Influence of an endotracheal tube with polyurethane cuff and subglottic secretion drainage on pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2007; 176 11 1079 1083 (Pubitemid 350223753)
98. Young P. J., Blunt M. C. Improving the shape and compliance characteristics of a high-volume, low-pressure cuff improves tracheal seal. Br J Anaesth: 1999; 83 6 887 889
99. Bowton D. L., Hite R. D., Martin R. S. The impact of hospital-wide use of a tapered cuff endotracheal tube on VAP incidence. Respir Care: 2013; 58 10 1582 1587
100. Valencia M., Ferrer M., Farre R., et al. Automatic control of tracheal tube cuff pressure in ventilated patients in semirecumbent position: a randomized trial. Crit Care Med: 2007; 35 6 1543 1549 (Pubitemid 46809319)
101. Rouzé A., Nseir S. Continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients: where is the evidence? Curr Opin Crit Care: 2013; 19 5 440 447
102. Manzano F., Fernández-Mondéjar E., Colmenero M., et al. Positive-end expiratory pressure reduces incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in nonhypoxemic patients. Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 8 2225 2231
103. Kollef M. H., Afessa B., Anzueto A., et al. NASCENT Investigation Group. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA: 2008; 300 7 805 813
104. Lacherade J. C., De Jonghe B., Guezennec P., et al. Intermittent subglottic secretion drainage and ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2010; 182 7 910 917
105. Muscedere J., Rewa O., McKechnie K., Jiang X., Laporta D., Heyland D. K. Subglottic secretion drainage for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med: 2011; 39 8 1985 1991
106. Drakulovic M. B., Torres A., Bauer T. T., Nicolas J. M., Nogué S., Ferrer M. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet: 1999; 354 9193 1851 1858
107. Orozco-Levi M., Torres A., Ferrer M., et al. Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1995; 152 4 Pt 1 1387 1390
108. Torres A., Ewig S., Lode H., Carlet J.; European HAP working group. Defining, treating and preventing hospital acquired pneumonia: European perspective. Intensive Care Med: 2009; 35 1 9 29
109. Krag M., Perner A., Wetterslev J., Moller M. H. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the intensive care unit: is it indicated? A topical systematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand: 2013; 57 7 835 847
110. Alhazzani W., Almasoud A., Jaeschke R., et al. Small bowel feeding and risk of pneumonia in adult critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care: 2013; 17 4 R127
111. Labeau S. O., Van de Vyver K., Brusselaers N., Vogelaers D., Blot S. I. Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia with oral antiseptics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis: 2011; 11 11 845 854
112. Shi Z., Xie H., Wang P., et al. Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev: 2013; 8 CD008367
113. Koeman M., van der Ven A. J., Hak E., et al. Oral decontamination with chlorhexidine reduces the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2006; 173 12 1348 1355 (Pubitemid 43900709)
114. Tantipong H., Morkchareonpong C., Jaiyindee S., Thamlikitkul V. Randomized controlled trial and meta-analysis of oral decontamination with 2% chlorhexidine solution for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol: 2008; 29 2 131 136 (Pubitemid 351269208)
115. de Smet A. M., Kluytmans J. A., Cooper B. S., et al. Decontamination of the digestive tract and oropharynx in ICU patients. N Engl J Med: 2009; 360 1 20 31
116. de Jonge E., Schultz M. J., Spanjaard L., et al. Effects of selective decontamination of digestive tract on mortality and acquisition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet: 2003; 362 9389 1011 1016 (Pubitemid 37186877)
117. Liberati A., D'Amico R., Pifferi S., Torri V., Brazzi L., Parmelli E. Antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving intensive care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev: 2009; 4 CD000022
118. D'Amico R., Pifferi S., Leonetti C., Torri V., Tinazzi A., Liberati A. Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis in critically ill adult patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ: 1998; 316 7140 1275 1285 (Pubitemid 28181936)
119. Grgurich P. E., Hudcova J., Lei Y., Sarwar A., Craven D. E. Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: controversies and working toward a gold standard. Curr Opin Infect Dis: 2013; 26 2 140 150
120. Fàbregas N., Torres A., El-Ebiary M., et al. Histopathologic and microbiologic aspects of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Anesthesiology: 1996; 84 4 760 771 (Pubitemid 26105238)
121. Torres A., el-Ebiary M., González J., et al. Gastric and pharyngeal flora in nosocomial pneumonia acquired during mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1993; 148 2 352 357 (Pubitemid 23221577)
122. Meduri G. U., Mauldin G. L., Wunderink R. G., et al. Causes of fever and pulmonary densities in patients with clinical manifestations of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 1994; 106 1 221 235 (Pubitemid 24214755)
123. Tejerina E., Esteban A., Fernández-Segoviano P., et al. Accuracy of clinical definitions of ventilator-associated pneumonia: comparison with autopsy findings. J Crit Care: 2010; 25 1 62 68
124. Fàbregas N., Ewig S., Torres A., et al. Clinical diagnosis of ventilator associated pneumonia revisited: comparative validation using immediate post-mortem lung biopsies. Thorax: 1999; 54 10 867 873 (Pubitemid 29452793)
125. Torres A., el-Ebiary M., Padró L., et al. Validation of different techniques for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Comparison with immediate postmortem pulmonary biopsy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1994; 149 2 Pt 1 324 331
126. Fartoukh M., Maitre B., Honoré S., Cerf C., Zahar J. R., Brun-Buisson C. Diagnosing pneumonia during mechanical ventilation: the clinical pulmonary infection score revisited. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2003; 168 2 173 179 (Pubitemid 36920970)
127. Pugin J., Auckenthaler R., Mili N., Janssens J. P., Lew P. D., Suter P. M. Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia by bacteriologic analysis of bronchoscopic and nonbronchoscopic blind bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1991; 143 5 Pt 1 1121 1129
128. Shan J., Chen H. L., Zhu J. H. Diagnostic accuracy of clinical pulmonary infection score for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Respir Care: 2011; 56 8 1087 1094
129. Garrouste-Orgeas M., Chevret S., Arlet G., et al. Oropharyngeal or gastric colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in adult intensive care unit patients. A prospective study based on genomic DNA analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1997; 156 5 1647 1655 (Pubitemid 27505538)
130. Jourdain B., Novara A., Joly-Guillou M. L., et al. Role of quantitative cultures of endotracheal aspirates in the diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1995; 152 1 241 246
131. Torres A., Martos A., Puig de la Bellacasa J., et al. Specificity of endotracheal aspiration, protected specimen brush, and bronchoalveolar lavage in mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis: 1993; 147 4 952 957 (Pubitemid 23093822)
132. Muscedere J., Sinuff T., Heyland D. K., et al. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The clinical impact and preventability of ventilator-associated conditions in critically ill patients who are mechanically ventilated. Chest: 2013; 144 5 1453 1460
133. Klein Klouwenberg P. M., van Mourik M. S., Ong D. S., et al. MARS Consortium. Electronic implementation of a novel surveillance paradigm for ventilator-associated events. Feasibility and validation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2014; 189 8 947 955
134. Boyer A., Medrano J., Mzali F., et al. Direct testing of bronchoalveolar lavages from ventilator-associated pneumonia patients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2012; 73 2 107 110
135. Bouza E., Torres M. V., Radice C., et al. Direct E-test (AB Biodisk) of respiratory samples improves antimicrobial use in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis: 2007; 44 3 382 387 (Pubitemid 46147621)
136. Cercenado E., Cercenado S., Marín M., Rico M. V., Vicente T., Bouza E. Evaluation of direct E-test on lower respiratory tract samples: a rapid and accurate procedure for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2007; 58 2 211 216 (Pubitemid 46856804)
137. Reygaert W. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): identification and susceptibility testing techniques. Clin Lab Sci: 2009; 22 2 120 124
138. Bogaerts P., Hamels S., de Mendonca R., et al. Analytical validation of a novel high multiplexing real-time PCR array for the identification of key pathogens causative of bacterial ventilator-associated pneumonia and their associated resistance genes. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2013; 68 2 340 347
139. Ost D. E., Poch D., Fadel A., Wettimuny S., Ginocchio C., Wang X. P. Mini-bronchoalveolar lavage quantitative polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia. Crit Care Med: 2010; 38 7 1536 1541
140. Muscedere J. G., Shorr A. F., Jiang X., Day A., Heyland D. K.; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. The adequacy of timely empiric antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia: an important determinant of outcome. J Crit Care: 2012; 27 3 e7 e14
141. Bouza E., Giannella M., Bunsow E., et al. Gregorio Marañón Task Force for Pneumonia (GANG). Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: risk factors and outcome in a large general hospital. J Hosp Infect: 2012; 80 2 150 155
142. Mueller E. W., Hanes S. D., Croce M. A., Wood G. C., Boucher B. A., Fabian T. C. Effect from multiple episodes of inadequate empiric antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia on morbidity and mortality among critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma: 2005; 58 1 94 101
143. Sanchez-Nieto J. M., Torres A., Garcia-Cordoba F., et al. Impact of invasive and noninvasive quantitative culture sampling on outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a pilot study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 1998; 157 2 371 376 (Pubitemid 28090522)
144. Ferrer M., Liapikou A., Valencia M., et al. Validation of the American Thoracic Society-Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia in the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis: 2010; 50 7 945 952
145. Kollef M. H., Morrow L. E., Niederman M. S., et al. Clinical characteristics and treatment patterns among patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 2006; 129 5 1210 1218
146. Damas P., Garweg C., Monchi M., et al. Combination therapy versus monotherapy: a randomised pilot study on the evolution of inflammatory parameters after ventilator associated pneumonia [ISRCTN31976779]. Crit Care: 2006; 10 2 R52
147. Aarts M. A., Hancock J. N., Heyland D., McLeod R. S., Marshall J. C. Empiric antibiotic therapy for suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 1 108 117
148. Heyland D. K., Dodek P., Muscedere J., Day A., Cook D.; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Randomized trial of combination versus monotherapy for the
149. Magnotti L. J., Schroeppel T. J., Clement L. P., et al. Efficacy of monotherapy in the treatment of Pseudomonas ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients with trauma. J Trauma: 2009; 66 4 1052 1058, discussion 1058-1059
150. Walkey A. J., O'Donnell M. R., Wiener R. S. Linezolid vs glycopeptide antibiotics for the treatment of suspected methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Chest: 2011; 139 5 1148 1155
151. Kalil A. C., Klompas M., Haynatzki G., Rupp M. E. Treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia with linezolid or vancomycin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open: 2013; 3 10 e003912
152. Wunderink R. G., Niederman M. S., Kollef M. H., et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis: 2012; 54 5 621 629
153. Haque N. Z., Zuniga L. C., Peyrani P., et al. Improving Medicine through Pathway Assessment of Critical Therapy of Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (IMPACT-HAP) Investigators. Relationship of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration to mortality in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, or health-care-associated pneumonia. Chest: 2010; 138 6 1356 1362
154. Hidayat L. K., Hsu D. I., Quist R., Shriner K. A., Wong-Beringer A. High-dose vancomycin therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: efficacy and toxicity. Arch Intern Med: 2006; 166 19 2138 2144 (Pubitemid 44631403)
155. Lu Q., Luo R., Bodin L., et al. Nebulized Antibiotics Study Group. Efficacy of high-dose nebulized colistin in ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. Anesthesiology: 2012; 117 6 1335 1347
156. Lu Q., Yang J., Liu Z., Gutierrez C., Aymard G., Rouby J. J.; Nebulized Antibiotics Study Group. Nebulized ceftazidime and amikacin in ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2011; 184 1 106 115
157. Radhakrishnan M., Jaganath A., Rao G. S., Kumari H. B. Nebulized imipenem to control nosocomial pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Crit Care: 2008; 23 1 148 150 (Pubitemid 351400349)
158. Papazian L., Roch A., Charles P. E., et al. STATIN-VAP Study Group. Effect of statin therapy on mortality in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA: 2013; 310 16 1692 1700