Vitamin D: A critical and essential micronutrient for human health

Frontiers in Physiology

Volumn 5 JUL, Issue , 2014, Pages

  Bendik, Igor ^a   Friedel, Angelika ^a   Roos, Franz F ^a   Weber, Peter ^a   Eggersdorfer, Manfred ^a  

^a DSM NUTRITIONAL PRODUCTS LTD   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

25 hydroxyvitamin D; Hidden hunger; Micronutrients; Nutrigenomics; Nutrition; Nutrition security; Nutritional pathways; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

VITAMIN D;

DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY COMPLIANCE; FOOD AVAILABILITY; FOOD COMPOSITION; FOOD INSECURITY; FOOD INTAKE; FOOD PRESERVATION; HEALTH CARE COST; HUMAN; HUNGER; MOLECULAR MECHANICS; NUTRIGENOMICS; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE; RAW FOOD DIET; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 84904314890     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664042X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00248     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. Ames, B. N. (2006). Low micronutrient intake may accelerate the degenerative diseases of aging through allocation of scarce micronutrients by triage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 17589-17594. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0608757103.
2. Aminullah Bhuiyan, A. K. M., Ratnayake, W. M. N., and Ackman, R. G. (1993). Nutritional composition of raw and smoked atlantic mackerel (scomber scombrus): oil- and water-soluble vitamins. J. Food Compos. Anal. 6, 172-184. doi: 10.1006/jfca.1993.1019.
3. Annweiler, C., Rolland, Y., Schott, A. M., Blain, H., Vellas, B., Herrmann, F. R., et al. (2012). Higher vitamin D dietary intake is associated with lower risk of Alzheimer's disease: a 7-year follow-up. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 67, 1205-1211. doi: 10.1093/gerona/gls107.
4. Armas, L. A., Dowell, S., Akhter, M., Duthuluru, S., Huerter, C., Hollis, B. W., et al. (2007). Ultraviolet-B radiation increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: the effect of UVB dose and skin color. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 57, 588-593. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2007.03.004.
5. Armas, L. A., Hollis, B. W., and Heaney, R. P. (2004). Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89, 5387-5391. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0360.
6. Baeke, F., Takiishi, T., Korf, H., Gysemans, C., and Mathieu, C. (2010). Vitamin D: modulator of the immune system. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 10, 482-496. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2010.04.001.
7. Berridge, M. J. (2012). Calcium signalling remodelling and disease. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 40, 297-309. doi: 10.1042/BST20110766.
8. Berry, D. J., Hesketh, K., Power, C., and Hyppönen, E. (2011). Vitamin D status has a linear association with seasonal infections and lung function in British adults. Br. J. Nutr. 106, 1433-1440. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511001991.
9. Biesalski, H. K. (2013). "Hidden hunger in the developed world". in The Road to Good Nutrition, A Global Perspective, 1st Edn., eds M. Eggersdorfer, K. Kraemer, M. Ruel, M. Van Ameringen, H. K. Biesalski, M. Bloem, et al. (Basel: Karger), 39-50.
10. Bilodeau, L., Dufresne, G., Deeks, J., Clément, G., Bertrand, J., Turcotte, S., et al. (2011). Determination of vitamin D3 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in foodstuffs by HPLC UV-DAD and LC-MS/MS. J. Food Compos. Anal. 24, 441-448. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2010.08.002.
11. Bischoff, H. A., Stahelin, H. B., Dick, W., Akos, R., Knecht, M., Salis, C., et al. (2003). Effects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls: a randomized controlled trial. J. Bone Miner. Res. 18, 343-351. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.2003.18.2.343.
12. Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Staehelin, H. B., Orav, J. E., Stuck, A. E., Theiler, R., et al. (2009). Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 339:b3692. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b3692.
13. Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Stocklin, E., Sidelnikov, E., Willett, W. C., Edel, J. O., et al. (2012). Oral supplementation with 25(OH)D3 versus vitamin D3: effects on 25(OH)D levels, lower extremity function, blood pressure, and markers of innate immunity. J. Bone Miner. Res. 27, 160-169. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.551.
14. Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Dietrich, T., Orav, E. J., Hu, F. B., Zhang, Y., Karlson, E. W., et al. (2004). Higher 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are associated with better lower-extremity function in both active and inactive persons aged =60 y. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 752-758.
15. Boland, R., Skliar, M., Curino, A., and Milanesi, L. (2003). Vitamin D compounds in plants. Plant Sci. 164, 357-369. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9452(02)00420-X.
16. Boland, R. L. (1986). Plants as a source of vitamin D3 metabolites. Nutr. Rev. 44, 1-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1986.tb07543.x.
17. Bossé, Y., Maghni, K., and Hudson, T. J. (2007). 1a,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 stimulation of bronchial smooth muscle cells induces autocrine, contractility, and remodeling processes. Physiol. Genomics 29, 161-168. doi: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00134.2006.
18. Bouillon, R., Carmeliet, G., Lieben, L., Watanabe, M., Perino, A., Auwerx, J., et al. (2014). Vitamin D and energy homeostasis-Of mice and men. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 10, 79-87. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2013.226.
19. Bouillon, R., Lieben, L., Mathieu, C., Verstuyf, A., and Carmeliet, G. (2013). Vitamin D action: lessons from VDR and Cyp27b1 null mice. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev. 10(Suppl. 2), 354-366.
20. Bouillon, R., Okamura, W. H., and Norman, A. W. (1995). Structure-function relationships in the vitamin D endocrine system. Endocr. Rev. 16, 200-257.
21. Bouillon, R., and Suda, T. (2014). Vitamin D: calcium and bone homeostasis during evolution. Bonekey Rep. 3:480. doi: 10.1038/bonekey.2013.214.
22. Broe, K. E., Chen, T. C., Weinberg, J., Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Holick, M. F., and Kiel, D. P. (2007). A higher dose of vitamin D reduces the risk of falls in nursing home residents: a randomized, multiple-dose study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 55, 234-239. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01048.x.
23. Buell, J. S., and Dawson-Hughes, B. (2008). Vitamin D and neurocognitive dysfunction: preventing "D"ecline? Mol. Aspects Med. 29, 415-422. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2008.05.001.
24. Burrell, A. M., Handel, A. E., Ramagopalan, S. V., Ebers, G. C., and Morahan, J. M. (2011). Epigenetic mechanisms in multiple sclerosis and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Discov. Med. 11, 187-196.
25. Byrdwell, W. C., Horst, R. L., Phillips, K. M., Holden, J. M., Patterson, K. Y., Harnly, J. M., et al. (2013). Vitamin D levels in fish and shellfish determined by liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection and mass spectrometry. J. Food Compos. Anal. 30, 109-119. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2013.01.005.
26. Calvo, M. S., Whiting, S. J., and Barton, C. N. (2004). Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 1710S-1716S.
27. Cantorna, M. T. (2012). Vitamin D, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 523, 103-106. doi: 10.1016/j.abb.2011.11.001.
28. Carlberg, C., and Campbell, M. J. (2013). Vitamin D receptor signaling mechanisms: integrated actions of a well-defined transcription factor. Steroids 78, 127-136. doi: 10.1016/j.steroids.2012.10.019.
29. Carlberg, C., Seuter, S., De Mello, V. D., Schwab, U., Voutilainen, S., Pulkki, K., et al. (2013). Primary vitamin d target genes allow a categorization of possible benefits of vitamin D3 supplementation. PLoS ONE 8:e71042. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071042.
30. Carlberg, C., Seuter, S., and Heikkinen, S. (2012). The first genome-wide view of vitamin D receptor locations and their mechanistic implications. Anticancer Res. 32, 271-282.
31. Cashman, K. D. (2014). The vitamin D RDA for African American adults: higher than that for white persons? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 99, 427-428. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.113.082271.
32. Ceglia, L., Niramitmahapanya, S., Da Silva Morais, M., Rivas, D. A., Harris, S. S., Bischoff-Ferrari, H., et al. (2013). A randomized study on the effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on skeletal muscle morphology and vitamin d receptor concentration in older women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, E1927-E1935. doi: 10.1210/jc.2013-2820.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention & National Center for Health Statistics. (2009). NHANES 2003-2004, NHANES 2005-2006, NHANES 2007-2008. Data, Documentation, Codebooks, SAS Code. Dietary Interview. Individual Foods, Total Nutrient Intakes First and Second Day. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes_questionnaires.htm.
34. Charan, J., Goyal, J. P., Saxena, D., and Yadav, P. (2012). Vitamin D for prevention of respiratory tract infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother. 3, 300-303. doi: 10.4103/0976-500X.103685.
35. Cheng, T. Y., Lacroix, A. Z., Beresford, S. A., Goodman, G. E., Thornquist, M. D., Zheng, Y., et al. (2013). Vitamin D intake and lung cancer risk in the Women's Health Initiative. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 98, 1002-1011. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.055905.
36. Choi, C. J., Seo, M., Choi, W. S., Kim, K. S., Youn, S. A., Lindsey, T., et al. (2013). Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and lung function among Korean adults in Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2008-2010. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, 1703-1710. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-3901.
37. Collins, E. D., and Norman, A. W. (2001). "Vitamin D". in Handbook of Vitamins, eds R. B. Rucker, J. W. Suttie, D. B. Mccormick, and L. J. Machlin (New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc.), 51-113.
38. Coussens, A. K., Wilkinson, R. J., Hanifa, Y., Nikolayevskyy, V., Elkington, P. T., Islam, K., et al. (2012). Vitamin D accelerates resolution of inflammatory responses during tuberculosis treatment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 15449-15454. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1200072109.
39. Dastani, Z., Li, R., and Richards, B. (2013). Genetic regulation of vitamin D levels. Calcif. Tissue Int. 92, 106-117. doi: 10.1007/s00223-012-9660-z.
40. De Boer, I. H., Sachs, M. C., Cleary, P. A., Hoofnagle, A. N., Lachin, J. M., Molitch, M. E., et al. (2012). Circulating Vitamin D metabolites and kidney disease in type 1 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 97, 4780-4788. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-2852.
41. Dobson, R., Giovannoni, G., and Ramagopalan, S. (2013). The month of birth effect in multiple sclerosis: systematic review, meta-analysis and effect of latitude. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 84, 427-432. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2012-303934.
42. Dong, J. Y., Zhang, W. G., Chen, J. J., Zhang, Z. L., Han, S. F., and Qin, L. Q. (2013). Vitamin D intake and risk of type 1 diabetes: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutrients 5, 3551-3562. doi: 10.3390/nu5093551.
43. Egaas, E., and Lambertsen, G. (1979). Naturally occurring vitamin D3 in fish products analysed by HPLC, using vitamin D2 as an international standard. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 49, 35-42.
44. Exler, J., Phillips, K. M., Patterson, K. Y., and Holden, J. M. (2013). Cholesterol and vitamin D content of eggs in the U.S. retail market. J. Food Compos. Anal. 29, 110-116. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2012.11.001.
45. Eyles, D. W., Burne, T. H. J., and McGrath, J. J. (2013). Vitamin D, effects on brain development, adult brain function and the links between low levels of vitamin D and neuropsychiatric disease. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 34, 47-64. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.07.001.
46. Flicker, L., Macinnis, R. J., Stein, M. S., Scherer, S. C., Mead, K. E., Nowson, C. A., et al. (2005). Should older people in residential care receive vitamin D to prevent falls? Results of a randomized trial. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 53, 1881-1888. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.00468.x.
47. Food and Drug Administration. (2008). Food labeling: health claims; calcium and osteoporosis, and calcium, vitamin D, and osteoporosis. Fed. Regist. 73, 56477-56487.
48. Forman, J. P., Giovannucci, E., Holmes, M. D., Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Tworoger, S. S., Willett, W. C., et al. (2007). Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension 49, 1063-1069. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.087288.
49. Gardner, D. G., Chen, S., Glenn, D. J., and Ni, W. (2011). Vitamin D and The Cardiovascular System. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc.
50. German Nutrition Society. (2012). New reference values for vitamin D. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 60, 241-246. doi: 10.1159/000337547.
51. Giovannucci, E., Liu, Y., Hollis, B. W., and Rimm, E. B. (2008). 25-hydroxyvitamin d and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch. Intern. Med. 168, 1174-1180. doi: 10.1001/archinte.168.11.1174.
52. Glendenning, P., Chew, G. T., Seymour, H. M., Gillett, M. J., Goldswain, P. R., Inderjeeth, C. A., et al. (2009). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in vitamin D-insufficient hip fracture patients after supplementation with ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol. Bone 45, 870-875. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2009.07.015.
53. González-Molero, I., Rojo-Martínez, G., Morcillo, S., Gutiérrez-Repiso, C., Rubio-Martín, E., Almaraz, M. C., et al. (2012). Vitamin D and incidence of diabetes: a prospective cohort study. Clin. Nutr. 31, 571-573. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2011.12.001.
54. Grant, W. B., Cross, H. S., Garland, C. F., Gorham, E. D., Moan, J., Peterlik, M., et al. (2009). Estimated benefit of increased vitamin D status in reducing the economic burden of disease in western Europe. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 99, 104-113. doi: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2009.02.003.
55. Haslberger, A., Varga, F., and Karlic, H. (2006). Recursive causality in evolution: a model for epigenetic mechanisms in cancer development. Med. Hypotheses 67, 1448-1454. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.05.047.
56. Haytowitz, D. B., Lemar, L. E., and Pehrsson, P. R. (2009). USDA's Nutrient Databank System -a tool for handling data from diverse sources. J. Food Compos. Anal. 22, 433-441. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2009.01.003.
57. Health Canada. (2014). Consolidation Food and Drugs Regulation. Ottawa, ON: The Minister of Justice Canada.
58. Heaney, R. P., Recker, R. R., Grote, J., Horst, R. L., and Armas, L. A. (2011). Vitamin D3 is more potent than vitamin D2 in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, E447-E452. doi: 10.1210/jc.2010-2230.
59. Heikkinen, S., Vaisanen, S., Pehkonen, P., Seuter, S., Benes, V., and Carlberg, C. (2011). Nuclear hormone 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 elicits a genome-wide shift in the locations of VDR chromatin occupancy. Nucleic Acids Res. 39, 9181-9193. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkr654.
60. Henderson, L., Irving, K., Gregory, J. F., Bates, C. J., Prentice, A., Perks, J., et al. (2003). The National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19-64 Years. Vol. 3: Vitamin and Mineral Intake and Urinary Analytes. London: The Stationery Office.
61. Hess, A. F., and Weinstock, M. (1925a). The antirachitic value of irradiated cholesterol an phytosterol. II. Further evidence of change in biological activity. Methods Enzymol. 64, 181-191.
62. Hess, A. F., and Weinstock, M. (1925b). The antirachitic value of irradiated cholesterol an phytosterol. III. Evidence of chemical change as shown by absorption spectra. Methods Enzymol. 64, 193-201.
63. Hewison, M. (2012). An update on vitamin D and human immunity. Clin. Endocrinol. 76, 315-325. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04261.x.
64. Hilger, J., Friedel, A., Herr, R., Rausch, T., Roos, F., Wahl, D. A., et al. (2014). A systematic review of vitamin D status in populations worldwide. Br. J. Nutr. 111, 23-45. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513001840.
65. Hirani, V. (2013). Associations between vitamin D and self-reported respiratory disease in older people from a nationally representative population survey. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 61, 969-973. doi: 10.1111/jgs.12254.
66. Holick, M. F. (2003). Vitamin D: a millenium perspective. J. Cell. Biochem. 88, 296-307. doi: 10.1002/jcb.10338.
67. Holick, M. F. (2007). Vitamin D deficiency. N. Engl J. Med 357, 266-281. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra070553.
68. Holick, M. F. (2011). "Photobiology of Vitamin D". in Vitamin D, 3rd Edn., eds D. Feldman, J. W. Pike, and J. S. Adams (London, GB: Elsevier), 13-22.
69. Holick, M. F., Biancuzzo, R. M., Chen, T. C., Klein, E. K., Young, A., Bibuld, D., et al. (2008). Vitamin D2 is as effective as vitamin D3 in maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93, 677-681. doi: 10.1210/jc.2007-2308.
70. Holick, M. F., Binkley, N. C., Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., Gordon, C. M., Hanley, D. A., Heaney, R. P., et al. (2011). Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin d deficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, 1911-1930. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-0385.
71. Holick, M. F., and Chen, T. C. (2008). Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 1080S-1086S.
72. Holick, M. F., Matsuoka, L. Y., and Wortsman, J. (1989). Age, vitamin D, and solar ultraviolet. Lancet 2, 1104-1105. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(89)91124-0.
73. Hossein-Nezhad, A., and Holick, M. F. (2012). Optimize dietary intake of vitamin D: an epigenetic perspective. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 15, 567-579. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e3283594978.
74. Hossein-Nezhad, A., Spira, A., and Holick, M. F. (2013). Influence of vitamin D status and vitamin D3 supplementation on genome wide expression of white blood cells: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. PLoS ONE 8:e58725. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058725.
75. Houston, D. K., Tooze, J. A., Hausman, D. B., Johnson, M. A., Nicklas, B. J., Miller, M. E., et al. (2011). Change in 25-hydroxyvitamin D and physical performance in older adults. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 66, 430-436. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glq235.
76. Huaman, M. A., Sterling, T. R., Shepherd, B. E., and Fiske, C. T. (2014). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D levels after recovery from tuberculosis: insights into pathogenesis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 94, 51-54. doi: 10.1016/j.tube.2013.10.009.
77. Huldschinsky, K. (1919). Heilung von Rachitis durch künstliche Höhensonne. Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 45, 712-713. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1137830.
78. Huldschinsky, K. (1926). The antirachitic: zone of the ultra-violet. Klinische Wochenschrift 5, 1972-1973. doi: 10.1007/BF01710213.
79. Hypponen, E., Laara, E., Reunanen, A., Jarvelin, M. R., and Virtanen, S. M. (2001). Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet 358, 1500-1503. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06580-1.
80. Institute of Medicine, F. A. N. B. (2011). Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
81. Jakobsen, J., and Knuthsen, P. (2014). Stability of vitamin D in foodstuffs during cooking. Food Chem. 148, 170-175. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.10.043.
82. Jakobsen, J., and Saxholt, E. (2009). Vitamin D metabolites in bovine milk and butter. J. Food Compos. Anal. 22, 472-478. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2009.01.010.
83. Japelt, R. B., Silvestro, D., Smedsgaard, J., Jensen, P. E., and Jakobsen, J. (2013). Quantification of vitamin D3 and its hydroxylated metabolites in waxy leaf nightshade (Solanum glaucophyllum Desf.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Food Chem. 138, 1206-1211. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.11.064.
84. Karakas, M., Thorand, B., Zierer, A., Huth, C., Meisinger, C., Roden, M., et al. (2013). Low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d are associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction, especially in women: results from the MONICA/KORA augsburg case-cohort study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, 272-280. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-2368.
85. Karlic, H., and Varga, F. (2011). Impact of vitamin D metabolism on clinical epigenetics. Clin. Epigenetics 2, 55-61. doi: 10.1007/s13148-011-0021-y.
86. Khan, H., Kunutsor, S., Franco, O. H., and Chowdhury, R. (2013). Vitamin D, type 2 diabetes and other metabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 72, 89-97. doi: 10.1017/S0029665112002765.
87. Kobayashi, T., Takeuchi, A., and Okano, T. (1995). "Vitamin D contents in various kinds of Japanese foods". in Challenges of Modern Medicine (Rome: Ares-Serono Symposia), 345-350.
88. Lee, V., Rekhi, E., Hoh Kam, J., and Jeffery, G. (2012). Vitamin D rejuvenates aging eyes by reducing inflammation, clearing amyloid beta and improving visual function. Neurobiol. Aging 33, 2382-2389. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.12.002.
89. Lehmann, B., Genehr, T., Knuschke, P., Pietzsch, J., and Meurer, M. (2001). UVB-induced conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol to 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in an in vitro human skin equivalent model. J. Invest. Dermatol. 117, 1179-1185. doi: 10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01538.x.
90. Lehmann, U., Hirche, F., Stangl, G. I., Hinz, K., Westphal, S., and Dierkes, J. (2013). Bioavailability of vitamin D2 and D3 in healthy volunteers, a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, 4339-4345. doi: 10.1210/jc.2012-4287.
91. Lips, P. (2001). Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications. Endocr. Rev. 22, 477-501. doi: 10.1210/edrv.22.4.0437.
92. Lips, P. (2007). Relative value of 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)2D measurements. J. Bone Miner. Res. 22, 1668-1671. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.070716.
93. Lips, P. (2010). Worldwide status of vitamin D nutrition. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 121, 297-300. doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.02.021.
94. Lips, P., and Van Schoor, N. (2011). "Worldwide vitamin D status". in Vitamin D, 3rd Edn., eds D. Feldman, J. W. Pike, and J. S. Adams (London, GB: Elsevier Inc.), 947-963.
95. Lips, P., Van Schoor, N. M., and Bravenboer, N. (2013). "Vitamin D-related disorders". in Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism 8th Edn., eds R. B. Clifford J. Rosen, J. E. Compston, V. Rosen (Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 613-623.
96. Looker, A. C., Dawson-Hughes, B., Calvo, M. S., Gunter, E. W., and Sahyoun, N. R. (2002). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone 30, 771-777. doi: 10.1016/S8756-3282(02)00692-0.
97. Lu, Z., Chen, T. C., Zhang, A., Persons, K. S., Kohn, N., Berkowitz, R., et al. (2007). An evaluation of the vitamin D3 content in fish: is the vitamin D content adequate to satisfy the dietary requirement for vitamin D? J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 103, 642-644. doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.010.
98. MacLaughlin, J., and Holick, M. F. (1985). Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J. Clin. Invest. 76, 1536-1538. doi: 10.1172/JCI112134.
99. Martineau, A. R., Timms, P. M., Bothamley, G. H., Hanifa, Y., Islam, K., Claxton, A. P., et al. (2011). High-dose vitamin D3 during intensive-phase antimicrobial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet 377, 242-250. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61889-2.
100. Matsuoka, L. Y., Wortsman, J., Haddad, J. G., Kolm, P., and Hollis, B. W. (1991). Racial pigmentation and the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D. Arch. Dermatol. 127, 536-538. doi: 10.1001/archderm.1991.04510010104011.
101. Mattila, P., Konko, K., Eurola, M., Pihlava, J. M., Astola, J., Vahteristo, L., et al. (2001). Contents of vitamins, mineral elements, and some phenolic compounds in cultivated mushrooms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49, 2343-2348. doi: 10.1021/jf001525d.
102. Mattila, P., Lehikoinen, K., Kiiskinen, T., and Piironen, V. (1999a). Cholecalciferol and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol content of chicken egg yolk as affected by the cholecalciferol content of feed. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47, 4089-4092. doi: 10.1021/jf990183c.
103. Mattila, P., Piironen, V., Bäckman, C., Asunmaa, A., Uusi-Rauva, E., and Koivistoinen, P. (1992). Determination of vitamin D3 in egg yolk by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection. J. Food Compost. Anal. 5, 281-290. doi: 10.1016/0889-1575(92)90062-O.
104. Mattila, P., Piironen, V., Haapala, R., Hirvi, T., and Uusi-Rauva, E. (1997). Possible factors responsible for the high variation in the cholecalciferol contents of fish. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45, 3891-3896. doi: 10.1021/jf970243j.
105. Mattila, P., Piironen, V., Uusi-Rauva, E., and Koivistoinen, P. (1995a). Cholecalciferol and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol contents in fish and fish products. J. Food Compost. Anal. 8, 232-243. doi: 10.1006/jfca.1995.1017.
106. Mattila, P., Ronkainen, R., Lehikoinen, K., and Piironen, V. (1999b). Effect of Household Cooking on the Vitamin D content in Fish, Eggs, and Wild Mushrooms. J. Food Compost. Anal. 12, 153-160. doi: 10.1006/jfca.1999.0828.
107. Mattila, P. H., Piironen, V. I., Uusi-Rauva, E. J., and Koivistoinen, P. E. (1994). Vitamin D contents in edible mushrooms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 42, 2449-2453. doi: 10.1021/jf00047a016.
108. Mattila, P. H., Piironen, V. I., Uusi-Rauva, E. J., and Koivistoinen, P. E. (1995b). Contents of cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, and their 25-hydroxylated metabolites in milk products and raw meat and liver as determined by HPLC. J. Agric. Food Chem. 43, 2394-2399. doi: 10.1021/jf00057a015.
109. Mau, J. L., Chen, P. R., and Yang, J. H. (1998). Ultraviolet irradiation increased vitamin D2 content in edible mushrooms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 5269-5272. doi: 10.1021/jf980602q.
110. Max Rubner-Institut. (2008). Nationale Verzehrsstudie II. Ergebnisbericht Teil 2. Die bundesweite Befragung zur Ernaehrung von Jugendlichen und Erwachsenen (National Food Intake Study II. Results Part 2. Countrywide Assessment of Nutrition in Adolescents and Adults). Karlsruhe: Max Rubner-Institut Available online at: http://www.was-esse-ich.de/uploads/media/NVSII_Abschlussbericht_Teil_2.pdf.
111. McCann, J. C., and Ames, B. N. (2009). Vitamin K, an example of triage theory: is micronutrient inadequacy linked to diseases of aging? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90, 889-907. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27930.
112. Mellanby, E. (1919). An experimental investigation on rickets. Lancet 193, 407-412. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)25465-8.
113. Mellanby, E. (1976). Nutrition classics. the lancet 1:407-12, 1919. An experimental investigation on rickets. Nutr. Rev. 34, 338-340. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1976.tb05815.x.
114. Millen, A. E., Voland, R., Sondel, S. A., Parekh, N., Horst, R. L., Wallace, R. B., et al. (2011). Vitamin D status and early age-related macular degeneration in postmenopausal women. Arch. Ophthalmol. 129, 481-489. doi: 10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.48.
115. Mitchell, K., Griffiths, C. J., and Martineau, A. R. (2011). Vitamin D and tuberculosis. Curr. Respir. Med. Rev. 7, 435-439. doi: 10.2174/157339811798072685.
116. Mithal, A., Wahl, D. A., Bonjour, J. P., Burckhardt, P., Dawson-Hughes, B., Eisman, J. A., et al. (2009). Global vitamin D status and determinants of hypovitaminosis D. Osteoporos Int. 20, 1807-1820. doi: 10.1007/s00198-009-0954-6.
117. Montgomery, J. L., Carr, M. A., Kerth, C. R., Hilton, G. G., Price, B. P., Galyean, M. L., et al. (2002). Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation level on the postmortem tenderization of beef from steers. J. Anim. Sci. 80, 971-981.
118. Montgomery, J. L., King, M. B., Gentry, J. G., Barham, A. R., Barham, B. L., Hilton, G. G., et al. (2004). Supplemental vitamin D3 concentration and biological type of steers. II. Tenderness, quality, and residues of beef. J. Anim. Sci. 82, 2092-2104.
119. Montgomery, J. L., Parrish, F. C., Beitz, D. C., Horst, R. L., Huff-Lonergan, E. J., and Trenkle, A. H. (2000). The use of vitamin D3 to improve beef tenderness. J. Anim. Sci. 78, 2615-2621.
120. Nesby-O'dell, S., Scanlon, K. S., Cogswell, M. E., Gillespie, C., Hollis, B. W., Looker, A. C., et al. (2002). Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and determinants among African American and white women of reproductive age: third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76, 187-192.
121. Ng, K., Meyerhardt, J. A., Wu, K., Feskanich, D., Hollis, B. W., Giovannucci, E. L., et al. (2008). Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin d levels and survival in patients with colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26, 2984-2991. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2007.15.1027.
122. Ng, K., Scott, J. B., Drake, B. F., Chan, A. T., Hollis, B. W., Chandler, P. D., et al. (2014). Dose response to vitamin D supplementation in African Americans: results of a 4-arm, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 99, 587-598. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.113.067777.
123. Nnoaham, K. E., and Clarke, A. (2008). Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 37, 113-119. doi: 10.1093/ije/dym247.
124. Norman, A. W. (2012). The history of the discovery of vitamin D and its daughter steroid hormone. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 61, 199-206. doi: 10.1159/000343104.
125. Norman, A. W., Ishizuka, S., and Okamura, W. H. (2001). Ligands for the vitamin D endocrine system: different shapes function as agonists and antagonists for genomic and rapid response receptors or as a ligand for the plasma vitamin D binding protein. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 76, 49-59. doi: 10.1016/S0960-0760(00)00145-X.
126. Norman, A. W., Okamura, W. H., Bishop, J. E., and Henry, H. L. (2002). Update on biological actions of 1alpha,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 (rapid effects) and 24R,25(OH)2-vitamin D3. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 197, 1-13. doi: 10.1016/S0303-7207(02)00273-3.
127. Ostermeyer, U., and Schmidt, T. (2006). Vitamin D and provitamin D in fish: determination by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 222, 403-413. doi: 10.1007/s00217-005-0086-y.
128. Ovesen, L., Brot, C., and Jakobsen, J. (2003). Food contents and biological activity of 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a vitamin D metabolite to be reckoned with? Ann. Nutr. Metab. 47, 107-113. doi: 10.1159/000070031.
129. Parekh, N., Chappell, R. J., Millen, A. E., Albert, D. M., and Mares, J. A. (2007). Association between Vitamin D and age-related macular degeneration in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 through 1994. Arch. Ophthalmol. 125, 661-669. doi: 10.1001/archopht.125.5.661.
130. Parrish, D. B. (1979). Determination of vitamin D in foods: a review. CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 12, 29-57. doi: 10.1080/10408397909527272.
131. Perrine, C. G., Sharma, A. J., Jefferds, M. E. D., Serdula, M. K., and Scanlon, K. S. (2010). Adherence to vitamin D recommendations among US infants. Pediatrics 125, 627-632. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-2571.
132. Pfeifer, M., Begerow, B., Minne, H. W., Abrams, C., Nachtigall, D., and Hansen, C. (2000). Effects of a short-term vitamin D and calcium supplementation on body sway and secondary hyperparathyroidism in elderly women. J. Bone Miner. Res. 15, 1113-1118. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.6.1113.
133. Pfeifer, M., Begerow, B., Minne, H. W., Suppan, K., Fahrleitner-Pammer, A., and Dobnig, H. (2009). Effects of a long-term vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls and parameters of muscle function in community-dwelling older individuals. Osteoporos. Int. 20, 315-322. doi: 10.1007/s00198-008-0662-7.
134. Phillips, K. M., Ruggio, D. M., Horst, R. L., Minor, B., Simon, R. R., Feeney, M. J., et al. (2011). Vitamin D and sterol composition of 10 types of mushrooms from retail suppliers in the United States. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59, 7841-7853. doi: 10.1021/jf104246z.
135. Pike, J. W., Lee, S. M., and Meyer, M. B. (2014). Regulation of gene expression by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in bone cells: exploiting new approaches and defining new mechanisms. Bonekey Rep. 3, 482. doi: 10.1038/bonekey.2013.216.
136. Pilz, S., Gaksch, M., O'Hartaigh, B., Tomaschitz, A., and März, W. (2013a). The role of vitamin D deficiency in cardiovascular disease: where do we stand in 2013? Arch. Toxicol. 87, 2083-2103. doi: 10.1007/s00204-013-1152-z.
137. Pilz, S., Kienreich, K., Rutters, F., De Jongh, R., Van Ballegooijen, A. J., Grubler, M., et al. (2013b). Role of vitamin D in the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Curr. Diab. Rep. 13, 261-270. doi: 10.1007/s11892-012-0358-4.
138. Pittas, A. G., Lau, J., Hu, F. B., and Dawson-Hughes, B. (2007). The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92, 2017-2029. doi: 10.1210/jc.2007-0298.
139. Platt, B. S. (1956). Sir Edward Mellanby, 8 April 1884-30 January 1955. Br. J. Nutr. 10, 177-181.
140. Prentice, A. (2008). Vitamin D deficiency: a global perspective. Nutr. Rev. 66, S153-S164. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00100.x.
141. Prince, R. L., Austin, N., Devine, A., Dick, I. M., Bruce, D., and Zhu, K. (2008). Effects of ergocalciferol added to calcium on the risk of falls in elderly high-risk women. Arch. Int. Med. 168, 103-108. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2007.31.
142. Ramagopalan, S. V., Heger, A., Berlanga, A. J., Maugeri, N. J., Lincoln, M. R., Burrell, A., et al. (2010). A ChIP-seq defined genome-wide map of vitamin D receptor binding: associations with disease and evolution. Genome Res. 20, 1352-1360. doi: 10.1101/gr.107920.110.
143. Ramos-Lopez, E., Jansen, T., Ivaskevicius, V., Kahles, H., Klepzig, C., Oldenburg, J., et al. (2006). Protection from type 1 diabetes by vitamin D receptor haplotypes. Ann. N Y. Acad. Sci. 1079, 327-334. doi: 10.1196/annals.1375.050.
144. Redzic, M., Lewis, R. M., and Thomas, D. T. (2013). Relationship between 25-hydoxyvitamin D, muscle strength, and incidence of injury in healthy adults: a systematic review. Nutr. Res. 33, 251-258. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2013.02.007.
145. Roberts, J. S., Teichert, A., and McHugh, T. H. (2008). Vitamin D2 formation from post-harvest UV-B treatment of mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and retention during storage. J. Agricultur. Food Chem. 56, 4541-4544. doi: 10.1021/jf0732511.
146. Romagnoli, E., Mascia, M. L., Cipriani, C., Fassino, V., Mazzei, F., D'Erasmo, E., et al. (2008). Short and long-term variations in serum calciotropic hormones after a single very large dose of ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) or cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in the elderly. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93, 3015-3020. doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-0350.
147. Rosen, C. J., Adams, J. S., Bikle, D. D., Black, D. M., Demay, M. B., Manson, J. E., et al. (2012). The nonskeletal effects of vitamin D: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr. Rev. 33, 456-492. doi: 10.1210/er.2012-1000.
148. Ross, A. C., Manson, J. E., Abrams, S. A., Aloia, J. F., Brannon, P. M., Clinton, S. K., et al. (2011). The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin d from the institute of medicine: what clinicians need to know. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, 53-58. doi: 10.1210/jc.2010-2704.
149. Salahuddin, N., Ali, F., Hasan, Z., Rao, N., Aqeel, M., and Mahmood, F. (2013). Vitamin D accelerates clinical recovery from tuberculosis: results of the SUCCINCT Study [Supplementary Cholecalciferol in recovery from tuberculosis]. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of vitamin D supplementation in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis'. BMC Infect. Dis. 13:22. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-22.
150. Schmid, A., and Walther, B. (2013). Natural vitamin D content in animal products. Adv. Nutr. 4, 453-462. doi: 10.3945/an.113.003780.
151. Schottker, B., Herder, C., Rothenbacher, D., Perna, L., Muller, H., and Brenner, H. (2013). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and incident diabetes mellitus type 2: a competing risk analysis in a large population-based cohort of older adults. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 28, 267-275. doi: 10.1007/s10654-013-9769-z.
152. Schroten, N. F., Ruifrok, W. P., Kleijn, L., Dokter, M. M., Sillje, H. H., Lambers Heerspink, H. J., et al. (2013). Short-term vitamin D3 supplementation lowers plasma renin activity in patients with stable chronic heart failure: an open-label, blinded end point, randomized prospective trial (VitD-CHF trial). Am. Heart J. 166, 357-364.e352. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2013.05.009.
153. Schwalfenberg, G. K. (2011). A review of the critical role of vitamin D in the functioning of the immune system and the clinical implications of vitamin D deficiency. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 55, 96-108. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201000174.
154. Sohl, E., Van Schoor, N. M., De Jongh, R. T., Visser, M., Deeg, D. J., and Lips, P. (2013). Vitamin d status is associated with functional limitations and functional decline in older individuals. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, E1483-E1490. doi: 10.1210/jc.2013-1698.
155. Solomon, A. J., and Whitham, R. H. (2010). Multiple sclerosis and vitamin D: a review and recommendations. Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep. 10, 389-396. doi: 10.1007/s11910-010-0131-5.
156. Strobel, N., Buddhadasa, S., Adorno, P., Stockham, K., and Greenfield, H. (2013). Vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D determination in meats by LC-IT-MS. Food Chem. 138, 1042-1047. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.08.041.
157. Sundar, I. K., and Rahman, I. (2011). Vitamin D and susceptibility of chronic lung diseases: role of epigenetics. Front. Pharmacol. 2:50. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2011.00050.
158. Takeuchi, A., Okano, T., Ayame, M., Yoshikawa, H., Teraoka, S., Murakami, Y., et al. (1984). High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of vitamin D3 in fish liver oils and eel body oils. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 30, 421-430. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.30.421.
159. Takeuchi, A., Okano, T., Sayamoto, M., Sawamura, S., Kobayashi, T., Motosugi, M., et al. (1986). Tissue distribution of 7-dehydrocholesterol, vitamin D3 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in several species of fishes. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 32, 13-22. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.32.13.
160. Tamez, H., and Thadhani, R. I. (2012). Vitamin D and hypertension: an update and review. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 21, 492-499. doi: 10.1097/MNH.0b013e3283557bf0.
161. Tarroni, P., Villa, I., Mrak, E., Zolezzi, F., Mattioli, M., Gattuso, C., et al. (2012). Microarray analysis of 1,25(OH)2D3 regulated gene expression in human primary osteoblasts. J. Cell. Biochem. 113, 640-649. doi: 10.1002/jcb.23392.
162. Teichmann, A., Dutta, P. C., Staffas, A., and Jägerstad, M. (2007). Sterol and vitamin D2 concentrations in cultivated and wild grown mushrooms: effects of UV irradiation. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 40, 815-822. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2006.04.003.
163. Tieland, M., Brouwer-Brolsma, E. M., Nienaber-Rousseau, C., Van Loon, L. J., and De Groot, L. C. (2013). Low vitamin D status is associated with reduced muscle mass and impaired physical performance in frail elderly people. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 1050-1055. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2013.144.
164. Tippetts, M., Martini, S., Brothersen, C., and McMahon, D. J. (2012). Fortification of cheese with vitamin D3 using dairy protein emulsions as delivery systems. J. Dairy Sci. 95, 4768-4774. doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-5134.
165. Trang, H. M., Cole, D. E., Rubin, L. A., Pierratos, A., Siu, S., and Vieth, R. (1998). Evidence that vitamin D3 increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D more efficiently than does vitamin D2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68, 854-858.
166. Trenerry, V. C., Plozza, T., Caridi, D., and Murphy, S. (2011). The determination of vitamin D3 in bovine milk by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Food Chem. 125, 1314-1319. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.09.097.
167. Troesch, B., Hoeft, B., McBurney, M., Eggersdorfer, M., and Weber, P. (2012). Dietary surveys indicate vitamin intakes below recommendations are common in representative Western countries. Br. J. Nutr. 108, 692-698. doi: 10.1017/S0007114512001808.
168. Tsur, A., Feldman, B. S., Feldhammer, I., Hoshen, M. B., Leibowitz, G., and Balicer, R. D. (2013). Decreased serum concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol are associated with increased risk of progression to impaired fasting glucose and diabetes. Diabetes Care 36, 1361-1367. doi: 10.2337/dc12-1050.
169. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2013). USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page. Available online at: http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl (Accessed February 10, 2014).
170. Van Belle, T. L., Gysemans, C., and Mathieu, C. (2013). Vitamin D and diabetes: the odd couple. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 24, 561-568. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.07.002.
171. van Rossum, C. T. M., Fransen, H. P., Verkaik-Kloosterman, J., Buurma-Rethans, E. J. M., and Ocke, M. C. (2011). Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2007-2010: Diet of Children and Adults Aged 7 to 69 Years. Bilthoven: RIVM.
172. Wacker, M., and Holick, M. (2013). Vitamin D-effects on skeletal and extraskeletal health and the need for supplementation. Nutrients 5, 111-148. doi: 10.3390/nu5010111.
173. Wagner, D., Sidhom, G., Whiting, S. J., Rousseau, D., and Vieth, R. (2008). The bioavailability of vitamin D from fortified cheeses and supplements is equivalent in adults. J. Nutr. 138, 1365-1371.
174. Wahl, D. A., Cooper, C., Ebeling, P. R., Eggersdorfer, M., Hilger, J., Hoffmann, K., et al. (2012). A global representation of vitamin D status in healthy populations. Arch. Osteoporos. 7, 155-172. doi: 10.1007/s11657-012-0093-0.
175. Webb, A. R., Kline, L., and Holick, M. F. (1988). Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: exposure to winter sunlight in boston and edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 67, 373-378. doi: 10.1210/jcem-67-2-373.
176. Welsh, J. (2012). Cellular and molecular effects of vitamin D on carcinogenesis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 523, 107-114. doi: 10.1016/j.abb.2011.10.019.
177. White, J. H. (2012). Vitamin D metabolism and signaling in the immune system. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 13, 21-29. doi: 10.1007/s11154-011-9195-z.
178. Windaus, A., Schenck, F., and Von Werder, F. (1936). über das antirachitisch wirksame Bestrahlungsprodukt aus 7-Dehydrocholesterin. Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie 241, 100-103. doi: 10.1515/bchm2.1936.241.1-3.100.
179. Zadshir, A., Tareen, N., Pan, D., Norris, K., and Martins, D. (2005). The prevalence of hypovitaminosis D among US adults: data from the NHANES III. Ethn. Dis. 15, S5-97-S95-101.
180. Zhao, Y., Sun, Y., Ji, H. F., and Shen, L. (2013). Vitamin D levels in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases: a meta-analysis. Nutrition 29, 828-832. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2012.11.018.