Paracetamol: A focus for the general pediatrician

European Journal of Pediatrics

Volumn 173, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 415-425

  Marzuillo, Pierluigi ^a   Guarino, Stefano ^a   Barbi, Egidio ^b  

^a SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES   (Italy)

^b INSTITUTE FOR MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH IRCCS BURLO GAROFOLO   (Italy)

Author keywords

Acetaminophen; Fever; Hepatotoxicity; Pain; Paracetamol

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATED CARBON; ALCOHOL; CARBAMAZEPINE; CYSTEINE; IBUPROFEN; ISONIAZID; MORPHINE; N ACETYL 1,4 BENZOQUINONE IMINE; NALOXONE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PARACETAMOL; PHENOBARBITAL; RIFAMPICIN; ANALGESIC AGENT;

ALLERGIC REACTION; ANALGESIA; ANALGESIC ACTIVITY; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ANTIPYRETIC ACTIVITY; BRONCHOSPASM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG FEVER; DRUG INTOXICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG OVERDOSE; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FEVER; FLUSHING; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER TOXICITY; LOADING DRUG DOSE; MUCOSAL DISEASE; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; PAIN; PANCYTOPENIA; PEDIATRICIAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RASH; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFLAMMATION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TACHYCARDIA; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; CHILD; RISK FACTOR;

ACETAMINOPHEN; ANALGESICS, NON-NARCOTIC; CHILD; DRUG OVERDOSE; FEVER; HUMANS; PAIN; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84897026317     PISSN: 03406199     EISSN: 14321076     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00431-013-2239-5     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Adam HM (1996) Fever and host responses. Pediatr Rev 17:330-331
2. Alander SW, Dowd MD, Bratton SL, Kearns GL (2000) Pediatric acetaminophen overdose: risk factors associated with hepatocellular injury. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154:346-350 (Pubitemid 30198480)
3. Ali S, Drendel AL, Kircher J, Beno S (2010) Pain management of musculoskeletal injuries in children: current state and future directions. Pediatr Emerg Care 26:518-524
4. Allegaert K, Naulaers G, Vanhaesebrouck S, Anderson BJ (2013) The paracetamol concentration-effect relation in neonates. Paediatr Anaesth 23:45-50
5. Allegaert K, van de Velde M, van den Anker J (2013) Neonatal clinical pharmacology. Paediatr Anaesth
6. Altomare E, Leo MA, Lieber CS (1984) Interaction of acute ethanol administration with acetaminophen metabolism and toxicity in rats fed alcohol chronically. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 8:405-408 (Pubitemid 14064973)
7. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs (2001) Acetaminophen toxicity in children. Pediatrics 108:1020-1024
8. Anderson BJ (2004) Comparing the efficacy of NSAIDs and paracetamol in children. Paediatr Anaesth 14:201-217
9. Anderson BJ (2008) Paracetamol (Acetaminophen): mechanisms of action. Paediatr Anaesth 18:915-921
10. Anderson BJ, Pons G, Autret-Leca E, Allegaert K, Boccard E (2005) Pediatric intravenous paracetamol (propacetamol) pharmacokinetics: a population analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 15:282-292 (Pubitemid 40462802)
11. Anderson BJ, Woollard GA, Holford NH (2001) Acetaminophen analgesia in children: placebo effect and pain resolution after tonsillectomy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 57:559-569
12. Arendt Nielsen L, Nielsen JC, Bjerring P (1991) Double-blind, placebo controlled comparison of paracetamol and paracetamol plus codeine: a quantitative evaluation by laser induced pain. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 40:241-247
13. Bagnall WE, Kelleher J, Walker BE, Losowsky MS (1979) The gastrointestinal absorption of paracetamol in the rat. J Pharm Pharmacol 31:157-160 (Pubitemid 9124021)
14. Bannwarth B, Netter P, Lapicque F, Gillet P, Péré P, Boccard E, Royer RJ, Gaucher A (1992) Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of paracetamol after a single intravenous dose of propacetamol. Br J Clin Pharmacol 34:79-81
15. Berlin CM Jr, Yaffe SJ, Ragni M (1980) Disposition of acetaminophen in milk, saliva, and plasma of lactating women. Pediatr Pharmacol (New York) 1:135-141 (Pubitemid 11139437)
16. Bertolini A, Ferrari A, Ottani A, Guerzoni S, Tacchi R, Leone S (2006) Paracetamol: new vistas of an old drug. CNS Drug Rev 12:250-275 (Pubitemid 46047791)
17. Betz MG, Grunfeld AF (2006) 'Fever phobia' in the emergency department: a survey of children's caregivers. Eur J Emerg Med 13:129-133 (Pubitemid 44153098)
18. Bianciotto M, Chiappini E, Raffaldi I, Gabiano C, Tovo PA, Sollai S, de Martino M, Mannelli F, Tipo V, Da Cas R, Traversa G, Menniti-Ippolito F, Italian Multicenter Study Group for Drug and Vaccine Safety in Children (2013) Drug use and upper gastrointestinal complications in children: a case-control study. Arch Dis Child 98:218-221
19. Bisogno T (2008) Endogenous cannabinoids: structure and metabolism. J Neuroendocrinol 20(Suppl 1):1-9
20. Björkman R (1995) Central antinociceptive effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and paracetamol. Experimental studies in the rat. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 103:1-44
21. Boyle M, Nicholson L, O'Brien M, Flynn GM, Collins DW, Walsh WR, Bihari D (2010) Paracetamol induced skin blood flow and blood pressure changes in febrile intensive care patients: an observational study. Aust Crit Care 23:208-214
22. Brown BL, Allis JW, Simmons JE, House DE (1995) Fasting for less than 24 h induces cytochrome P450 2E1 and 2B1/2 activities in rats. Toxicol Lett 81:39-44 (Pubitemid 26008341)
23. Campbell NR, Baylis B (1992) Renal impairment associated with an acute paracetamol overdose in the absence of hepatotoxicity. Postgrad Med J 68:116-118
24. Ceelie I, de Wildt SN, van Dijk M, van den Berg MM, van den Bosch GE, Duivenvoorden HJ, de Leeuw TG, Mathôt R, Knibbe CA, Tibboel D (2013) Effect of intravenous paracetamol on postoperative morphine requirements in neonates and infants undergoing major noncardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 309:149-154
25. Ceelie I, James LP, Gijsen V, Mathot RA, Ito S, Tesselaar CD, Tibboel D, Koren G, de Wildt SN (2011) Acute liver failure after recommended doses of acetaminophen in patients with myopathies. Crit Care Med 39:678-682
26. Chien JY, Peter RM, Nolan CM, Wartell C, Slattery JT, Nelson SD, Carithers RL Jr, Thummel KE (1997) Influence of polymorphic N-acetyltransferase phenotype on the inhibition and induction of acetaminophen bioactivation with long-term isoniazid. Clin Pharmacol Ther 61:24-34 (Pubitemid 27072881)
27. Clark E, Plint AC, Correll R, Gaboury I, Passi B (2007) A randomized, controlled trial of acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and codeine for acute pain relief in children with musculoskeletal trauma. Pediatrics 119:460-467 (Pubitemid 46407514)
28. Clissold SP (1986) Aspirin and related derivatives of salicylic acid. Drugs 32:8-26
29. Committee on Infectious Disease AAoP (1982) Aspirin and Reye's syndrome. Pediatrics 69:810
30. Courade JP, Martin K, Besse D, Delchambre C, Hanoun N, Hamon M, Eschalier A, Caussade F, Cloarec A (2001) Acetaminophen distribution in the rat central nervous system. Life Sci 69:1455-1464 (Pubitemid 32758712)
31. Crocetti M, Moghbeli N, Serwint J (2001) Fever phobia revisited: have parental misconceptions about fever changed in 20 years? Pediatrics 107:1241-1246 (Pubitemid 32525196)
32. Cullen S, Kenny D, Ward OC, Sabra K (1989) Paracetamol suppositories: a comparative study. Arch Dis Child 64:1504-1505 (Pubitemid 19255192)
33. Dahlin DC, Miwa GT, Lu AY, Nelson SD (1984) N-Acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine: a cytochrome P-450-mediated oxidation product of acetaminophen. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 81:1327-1331 (Pubitemid 14173462)
34. Dart RC, Rumack BH (2012) Intravenous acetaminophen in the United States: iatrogenic dosing errors. Pediatrics 129:349-353
35. Davenport A, Finn R (1988) Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning resulting in acute renal failure without hepatic coma. Nephron 50:55-56
36. Fein JA, Zempsky WT, Cravero JP, Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine and Section on Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, American Academy of Pediatrics (2012) Relief of pain and anxiety in pediatric patients in emergency medical systems. Pediatrics 130:e1391-405
37. Fischereder M, Jaffe JP (1994) Thrombocytopenia following acute acetaminophen overdose. Am J Hematol 45:258-259 (Pubitemid 24053442)
38. Flanagan RJ, Mant TG (1986) Coma and metabolic acidosis early in severe acute paracetamol poisoning. Hum Toxicol 5:179-182 (Pubitemid 16100140)
39. Flower RJ, Vane JR (1972) Inhibition of prostaglandin synthetase in brain explains the anti-pyretic activity of paracetamol (4-acetamidophenol). Nature 240:410-411
40. Gibb IA, Anderson BJ (2008) Paracetamol (acetaminophen) pharmacodynamics: interpreting the plasma concentration. Arch Dis Child 93:241-247 (Pubitemid 352025500)
41. Grand RJ, Watkins JB, Torti FM (1976) Development of the human gastrointestinal tract: a review. Gastroenterology 70:790-810
42. Gühring H, Hamza M, Sergejeva M, Ates M, Kotalla CE, Ledent C, Brune K (2002) A role for endocannabinoids in indomethacin-induced spinal antinociception. Eur J Pharmacol 454:153-163 (Pubitemid 35287474)
43. Hannam J, Anderson BJ (2011) Explaining the acetaminophen-ibuprofen analgesic interaction using a response surface model. Paediatr Anaesth 21:1234-1240
44. Hay AD, Redmond NM, Costelloe C, Montgomery AA, Fletcher M, Hollinghurst S, Peters TJ (2009) Paracetamol and ibuprofen for the treatment of fever in children: the PITCH randomised controlled trial. Health Technol Assess 13:iii-iv, ix-x, 1-163.
45. Henderson AJ, Shaheen SO (2013) Acetaminophen and asthma. Paediatr Respir Rev 14:9-15
46. Henretig FM, Selbst SM, Forrest C, Kearney TK, Orel H, Werner S, Williams TA (1989) Repeated acetaminophen overdosing. Causing hepatotoxicity in children. Clinical reports and literature review. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 28:525-528 (Pubitemid 19272601)
47. Heubi JE, Barbacci MB, Zimmerman HJ (1998) Therapeutic misadventures with acetaminophen: hepatoxicity after multiple doses in children. J Pediatr 132:22-27 (Pubitemid 28082526)
48. Högestätt ED, Jönsson BA, Ermund A, Andersson DA, Björk H, Alexander JP, Cravatt BF, Basbaum AI, Zygmunt PM (2005) Conversion of acetaminophen to the bioactive N-acylphenolamine AM404 via fatty acid amide hydrolase-dependent arachidonic acid conjugation in the nervous system. J Biol Chem 280:31405-31412 (Pubitemid 41291881)
49. Inoue T, Mashimo T, Shibata M, Shibuta S, Yoshiya I (1998) Rapid development of nitric oxide-induced hyperalgesia depends on an alternate to the cGMP-mediated pathway in the rat neuropathic pain model. Brain Res 792:263-270 (Pubitemid 28267539)
50. Jaffe DM (2002) Assessment of the child with fever. In: Rudolph CD, Rudolph AM, Hostetter MK, Lister GE, Siegel NJ (eds) Rudolph's pediatrics, 21st edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 302-309
51. James LP, Chiew A, Abdel-Rahman SM, Letzig L, Graudins A, Day P, Roberts D (2013) Acetaminophen protein adduct formation following low-dose acetaminophen exposure: comparison of immediate-release vs extended-release formulations. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 69:851-857
52. Jefferies S, Saxena M, Young P (2012) Paracetamol in critical illness: a review. Crit Care Resusc 14:74-80
53. Ji P, Wang Y, Li Z, Doddapaneni S, Hertz S, Furness S, Sahajwalla CG (2012) Regulatory review of acetaminophen clinical pharmacology in young pediatric patients. J Pharm Sci 101:4383-4389
54. Kelley MT, Walson PD, Edge JH, Cox S, Mortensen ME (1992) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ibuprofen isomers and acetaminophen in febrile children. Clin Pharmacol Ther 52:181-189
55. King D (2013) Question 2: does a failure to respond to antipyretics predict serious illness in children with a fever? Arch Dis Child 98:644-646
56. Korpela R, Korvenoja P, Meretoja OA (1999) Morphine-sparing effect of acetaminophen in pediatric day-case surgery. Anesthesiology 91:442-447 (Pubitemid 29365028)
57. Kramer LC, Richards PA, Thompson AM, Harper DP, Fairchok MP (2008) Alternating antipyretics: antipyretic efficacy of acetaminophen versus acetaminophen alternated with ibuprofen in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 47:907-911
58. Kuehn B (2013) FDA: Acetaminophen may trigger serious skin problems. JAMA 310:785
59. Kuikka A, Sivonen A, Emelianova A, Valtonen VV (1997) Prognostic factors associated with improved outcome of Escherichia coli bacteremia in a Finnish university hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 16:125-134 (Pubitemid 27135963)
60. Kuikka A, Valtonen VV (1998) Factors associated with improved outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in a Finnish university hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 17:701-708 (Pubitemid 29218992)
61. Kumpulainen E, Kokki H, Halonen T, Heikkinen M, Savolainen J, Laisalmi M (2007) Paracetamol (acetaminophen) penetrates readily into the cerebrospinal fluid of children after intravenous administration. Pediatrics 119:766-771 (Pubitemid 46556676)
62. Larson AM, Polson J, Fontana RJ, Davern TJ, Lalani E, Hynan LS, Reisch JS, Schiødt FV, Ostapowicz G, Shakil AO, Lee WM, Acute Liver Failure Study Group (2005) Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology 42:1364-1372 (Pubitemid 43260039)
63. Lauterburg BH, Mitchell JR (1987) Therapeutic doses of acetaminophen stimulate the turnover of cysteine and glutathione in man. J Hepatol 4:206-211 (Pubitemid 17044981)
64. Lavonas EJ, Reynolds KM, Dart RC (2010) Therapeutic acetaminophen is not associated with liver injury in children: a systematic review. Pediatrics 126:e1430-1444
65. Makin AJ, Wendon J, Williams R (1995) A 7-year experience of severe acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity (1987-1993). Gastroenterology 109:1907-1916
66. Manyike PT, Kharasch ED, Kalhorn TF, Slattery JT (2000) Contribution of CYP2E1 and CYP3A to acetaminophen reactive metabolite formation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 67:275-282 (Pubitemid 30176386)
67. Manzano S, Doyon-Trottier E, Bailey B (2010) Myth: ibuprofen is superior to acetaminophen for the treatment of benign headaches in children and adults. CJEM 12:220-222
68. McGill MR, Jaeschke H (2013) Metabolism and disposition of acetaminophen: recent advances in relation to hepatotoxicity and diagnosis. Pharm Res 30:2174-2187
69. Mehlisch DR, Aspley S, Daniels SE, Bandy DP (2010) Comparison of the analgesic efficacy of concurrent ibuprofen and paracetamol with ibuprofen or paracetamol alone in the management of moderate to severe acute postoperative dental pain in adolescents and adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, single-dose, two-center, modified factorial study. Clin Ther 32:882-895
70. Meller ST, Dykstra C, Gebhart GF (1992) Production of endogenous nitric oxide and activation of soluble guanylate cyclise are required for N-methyl-D-aspartate-produced facilitation of the nociceptive tail-flick reflex. Eur J Pharmacol 214:93-96
71. Miller MG, Price VF, Jollow DJ (1986) Anomalous susceptibility of the fasted hamster to acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol 35:817-825 (Pubitemid 16042285)
72. Miller RP, Roberts RJ, Fischer LJ (1976) Acetaminophen elimination kinetics in neonates, children, and adults. Clin Pharmacol Ther 19:284-294
73. Miners JO, Osborne NJ, Tonkin AL, Birkett DJ (1992) Perturbation of paracetamol urinary metabolic ratios by urine flow rate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 34:359-362
74. Misurac JM, Knoderer CA, Leiser JD, Nailescu C, Wilson AC, Andreoli SP (2013) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are an important cause of acute kidney injury in children. J Pediatr 162:1153-1159
75. Murphy R, Swartz R, Watkins PB (1990) Severe acetaminophen toxicity in a patient receiving isoniazid. Ann Intern Med 113:799-800 (Pubitemid 20369671)
76. Nabulsi M, Tamim H, Mahfoud Z, Itani M, Sabra R, Chamseddine F, Mikati M (2006) Alternating ibuprofen and acetaminophen in the treatment of febrile children: a pilot study. BMC Med 4:4
77. Nabulsi M, Tamim H, Sabra R, Mahfoud Z, Malaeb S, Fakih H, Mikati M (2005) Equal antipyretic effectiveness of oral and rectal acetaminophen: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pediatr 5:35-42
78. Nassini R, Materazzi S, Andrè E, Sartiani L, Aldini G, Trevisani M, Carnini C, Massi D, Pedretti P, Carini M, Cerbai E, Preti D, Villetti G, Civelli M, Trevisan G, Azzari C, Stokesberry S, Sadofsky L, McGarvey L, Patacchini R, Geppetti P (2010) Acetaminophen, via its reactivemetabolite N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine and transient receptor potential ankyrin-1 stimulation, causes neurogenic inflammation in the airways and other tissues in rodents. FASEB J 24:4904-16
79. Nielsen JC, Bjerring P, Arendt Nielsen L, Petterson KJ (1992) Analgesic efficacy of immediate and sustained release paracetamol and plasma concentration of paracetamol. Double blind, placebo-controlled evaluation using painful laser stimulation. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 42:261-264
80. Notarianni LJ, Oldham HG, Bennett PN (1987) Passage of paracetamol into breast milk and its subsequent metabolism by the neonate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 24:63-67 (Pubitemid 17087677)
81. O'Shea D, Davis SN, Kim RB, Wilkinson GR (1994) Effect of fasting and obesity in humans on the 6-hydroxylation of chlorzoxazone: a putative probe of CYP2E1 activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 56:359-367 (Pubitemid 24339082)
82. Ottani A, Leone S, Sandrini M, Ferrari A, Bertolini A (2006) The analgesic activity of paracetamol is prevented by the blockade of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 531:280-281 (Pubitemid 43202247)
83. Palmer GM, Atkins M, Anderson BJ, Smith KR, Culnane TJ, McNally CM, Perkins EJ, Chalkiadis GA, Hunt RW (2008) I.V. acetaminophen pharmacokinetics in neonates after multiple doses. Br J Anaesth 101:523-530
84. Patel M, Tang BK, Kalow W (1992) Variability of acetaminophen metabolism in Caucasians and Orientals. Pharmacogenetics 2:38-45
85. Paul IM, Sturgis SA, Yang C, Engle L, Watts H, Berlin CM Jr (2010) Efficacy of standard doses of Ibuprofen alone, alternating, and combined with acetaminophen for the treatment of febrile children. Clin Ther 32:2433-2440
86. Pelkonen T, Roine I, Cruzeiro ML, Pitkäranta A, Kataja M, Peltola H (2011) Slow initial β-lactam infusion and oral paracetamol to treat childhood bacterial meningitis: a randomised, controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis 11:613-621
87. Perneger TV, Whelton PK, Klag MJ (1994) Risk of kidney failure associated with the use of acetaminophen, aspirin, and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med 331:1675-1679 (Pubitemid 24373619)
88. Perry HE, Shannon MW (1998) Efficacy of oral versus intravenous N-acetylcysteine in acetaminophen overdose: results of an open-label, clinical trial. J Pediatr 132:149-152 (Pubitemid 28082548)
89. Peterson JD, Herzenberg LA, Vasquez K, Waltenbaugh C (1998) Glutathione levels in antigen-presenting cells modulate Th1 versus Th2 response patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:3071-3076 (Pubitemid 28135856)
90. Pickering G, Estève V, Loriot MA, Eschalier A, Dubray C (2008) Acetaminophen reinforces descending inhibitory pain pathways. Clin Pharmacol Ther 84:47-51 (Pubitemid 351861483)
91. Piñeiro-Carrero VM, Piñeiro EO (2004) Liver. Pediatrics 113:1097-1106
92. Poirier MP, Davis PH, Gonzalez-del Rey JA, Monroe KW (2000) Pediatric emergency department nurses' perspectives on fever in children. Pediatr Emerg Care 16:9-12 (Pubitemid 30102101)
93. Prescott LF (1980) Kinetics and metabolism of paracetamol and phenacetin. Br J Clin Pharmacol 10:291S-298S
94. Prescott LF (1982) Analgesic nephropathy. Drugs 23:75-149
95. Prescott LF (2001) Paracetamol (acetaminophen): a critical bibliographic review, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1001 p
96. Prescott LF, Illingworth RN, Critchley JA, Stewart MJ, Adam RD, Proudfoot AT (1979) Intravenous N-acetylcystine: the treatment of choice for paracetamol poisoning. Br Med J 2:1097-10100
97. Price VF, Jollow DJ (1989) Effect of glucose and gluconeogenic substrates on fasting-induced suppression of acetaminophen glucuronidation in the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 38:289-297 (Pubitemid 19033339)
98. Rivera-Penera T, Gugig R, Davis J, McDiarmid S, Vargas J, Rosenthal P, Berquist W, Heyman MB, Ament ME (1997) Outcome of acetaminophen overdose in pediatric patients and factors contributing to hepatotoxicity. J Pediatr 130:300-304 (Pubitemid 27495169)
99. Rumack BH (1984) Acetaminophen overdose in young children. Treatment and effects of alcohol and other additional ingestants in 417 cases. Am J Dis Child 138:428-433
100. Rygnestad T, Zahlsen K, Samdal FA (2000) Absorption of effervescent paracetamol tablets relative to ordinary paracetamol tablets in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 56:141-143 (Pubitemid 30341388)
101. Sauerwein RW, Mulder JA, Mulder L, Lowe B, Peshu N, Demacker PN, van der Meer JW, Marsh K (1997) Inflammatory mediators in children with protein-energy malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 65:1534-1539 (Pubitemid 27187769)
102. Scolnik D, Kozer E, Jacobson S, Diamond S, Young NL (2002) Comparison of oral versus normal and high-dose rectal acetaminophen in the treatment of febrile children. Pediatrics 110:553-556 (Pubitemid 34976685)
103. Section on Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Committee on Drugs, Sullivan JE, Farrar HC (2011) Fever and antipyretic use in children. Pediatrics 127:580-587
104. Shaheen SO, Newson RB, Henderson AJ, Headley JE, Stratton FD, Jones RW, Strachan DP, ALSPAC Study Team (2005) Prenatal paracetamol exposure and risk of asthma and elevated immunoglobulin E in childhood. Clin Exp Allergy 35:18-25 (Pubitemid 40188265)
105. Singla NK, Parulan C, Samson R, Hutchinson J, Bushnell R, Beja EG, Ang R, Royal MA (2012) Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetic parameters after single-dose administration of intravenous, oral, or rectal acetaminophen. Pain Pract 12:523-532
106. Song BJ, Veech RL, Saenger P (1990) Cytochrome P450IIE1 is elevated in lymphocytes from poorly controlled insulin-dependent diabetics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:1036-1040
107. Squires RH Jr, Shneider BL, Bucuvalas J, Alonso E, Sokol RJ, Narkewicz MR, Dhawan A, Rosenthal P, Rodriguez-Baez N, Murray KF, Horslen S, Martin MG, Lopez MJ, Soriano H, McGuire BM, Jonas MM, Yazigi N, Shepherd RW, Schwarz K, Lobritto S, Thomas DW, Lavine JE, Karpen S, Ng V, Kelly D, Simonds N, Hynan LS (2006) Acute liver failure in children: the first 348 patients in the pediatric acute liver failure study group. J Pediatr 148:652-658
108. Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management, Subcommittee on Febrile Seizures American Academy of Pediatrics (2008) Febrile seizures: clinical practice guideline for the long-term management of the child with simple febrile seizures. Pediatrics 121:1281-1286
109. Temple AR, Temple BR, Kuffner EK (2013) Dosing and antipyretic efficacy of oral acetaminophen in children. Clin Ther
110. Tréluyer JM, Tonnelier S, d'Athis P, Leclerc B, Jolivet-Landreau I, Pons G (2001) Antipyretic efficacy of an initial 30-mg/kg loading dose of acetaminophen versus a 15-mg/kg maintenance dose. Pediatrics 108:E73
111. Ueshima Y, Tsutsumi M, Takase S, Matsuda Y, Kawahara H (1996) Acetaminophen metabolism in patients with different cytochrome P-4502E1 genotypes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:25A-28A
112. Updated guidance to help assess children with fever, NICE clinical guidelines, 22 May 2013
113. van de Beek D, Brouwer MC, Thwaites GE, Tunkel AR (2012) Advances in treatment of bacterialmeningitis. Lancet 380:1693-1702
114. van der Marel CD, Anderson BJ, van Lingen RA, Holford NH, Pluim MA, Jansman FG, van den Anker JN, Tibboel D (2003) Paracetamol and metabolite pharmacokinetics in infants. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 59:243-251 (Pubitemid 36995133)
115. Vieira I, Sonnier M, Cresteil T (1996) Developmental expression of CYP2E1 in the human liver. Hypermethylation control of gene expression during the neonatal period. Eur J Biochem 238:476-483
116. Wallace JL (2006) COX-2: a pivotal enzyme in mucosal protection and resolution of inflammation. Sci World J 6:577-588
117. Watkins PB, Kaplowitz N, Slattery JT, Colonese CR, Colucci SV, Stewart PW, Harris SC (2006) Aminotransferase elevations in healthy adults receiving 4 grams of acetaminophen daily: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 296:87-93
118. Whitcomb DC, Block GD (1994) Association of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity with fasting and ethanol use. JAMA 272:1845-1850 (Pubitemid 24374525)
119. Wilson JT, Brown RD, Bocchini JA Jr, Kearns G (1982) Efficacy, disposition and pharmacodynamics of aspirin, acetaminophen and choline salicylate in young febrile children. Ther Drug Monit 4:147-180 (Pubitemid 12073130)
120. Wright AD, Liebelt EL (2011) Alternating antipyretics for fever reduction in children: an unfounded practice passed down to parents from pediatricians. Arch Dis Child 96:1175-1179
121. Yang CC, Deng JF, Lin TJ (2001) Pancytopenia, hyperglycemia, shock, coma, rhabdomyolysis, and pancreatitis associated with acetaminophen poisoning. Vet Hum Toxicol 43:344-348
122. Zernikow B, Hechler T (2008) Pain therapy in children and adolescents. Dtsch Arztebl Int 105:511-521
123. Zhang W, Parentau H, Greenly RL, Metz CA, Aggarwal S, Wainer IW, Tracy TS (1999) Effect of protein-calorie malnutrition on cytochromes P450 and glutathione S-transferase. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 24:141-147 (Pubitemid 29435613)
124. Zuppa AF, Hammer GB, Barrett JS, Kenney BF, Kassir N, Mouksassi S, Royal MA (2011) Safety and population pharmacokinetic analysis of intravenous acetaminophen in neonates, infants, children, and adolescents with pain or fever. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 16:246-261