Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity risk of carbon nanotubes

Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews

Volumn 65, Issue 15, 2013, Pages 2098-2110

  Toyokuni, Shinya ^a  

^a NAGOYA UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

Asbestos; CDKN2A 2B; Homozygous deletion; Mesothelial cell; Mesothelioma; Mutation; Tumor suppressor gene

Indexed keywords

CDKN2A/2B; HOMOZYGOUS DELETION; MESOTHELIAL CELLS; MESOTHELIOMA; MUTATION; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES;

ASBESTOS; HEALTH RISKS; MAMMALS; MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBES (MWCN); NEEDLES; TUMORS;

RISK ASSESSMENT;

AMOSITE; ASBESTOS; CARBON NANOTUBE; CHRYSOTILE; CRIZOTINIB; CROCIDOLITE; MULTI WALLED NANOTUBE; PROTEIN P53; SINGLE WALLED NANOTUBE;

BAP1 GENE; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RISK; CARCINOGENICITY; CDKN2A GENE; CDKN2B GENE; CYTOPATHOGENIC EFFECT; CYTOTOXICITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FAMILIAL CANCER; GENE; GENOTOXICITY; HEMOLYSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; LUNG ADENOCARCINOMA; LUNG CANCER; LUNG RESECTION; MESOTHELIOMA; MESOTHELIUM CELL; MUTAGENICITY; NANOANALYSIS; NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY; NANOFABRICATION; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; ONCOGENE; PARTICLE SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING; TOXICITY TESTING; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE;

ASBESTOS; CARBON NANOTUBE; CDKN2A/2B; CNT; HOMOZYGOUS DELETION; MESOTHELIAL CELL; MESOTHELIOMA; MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBE; MUTATION; MWCNT; SINGLE-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBE; SWCNT; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE;

ANIMALS; ASBESTOS; CARCINOGENS; HUMANS; INHALATION EXPOSURE; MUTAGENICITY TESTS; NANOTUBES, CARBON; NEOPLASMS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PARTICLE SIZE; RATS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 84888871860     PISSN: 0169409X     EISSN: 18728294     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.05.011     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Zhang Y. The magic bullets and tuberculosis drug targets. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2005, 45:529-564.
2. Watson J.D., Crick F.H.C. Molecular structure of nucleic acids. Nature April 25, 1953, 4356(1953):737-738.
3. Libby P. The molecular mechanisms of the thrombotic complications of atherosclerosis. J. Intern. Med. 2008, 263:517-527.
4. Touboul P.J., Elbaz A., Koller C., Lucas C., Adrai V., Chedru F., Amarenco P. Common carotid artery intima-media thickness and brain infarction: the Etude du Profil Genetique de l'Infarctus Cerebral (GENIC) case-control study. The GENIC Investigators, Circulation 2000, 102:313-318.
5. Sawyers C. Targeted cancer therapy. Nature 2004, 432:294-297.
6. Scott A.M., Wolchok J.D., Old L.J. Antibody therapy of cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2012, 12:278-287.
7. Creedon H., Brunton V.G. Src kinase inhibitors: promising cancer therapeutics?. Crit. Rev. Oncog. 2012, 17:145-159.
8. Soda M., Choi Y.L., Enomoto M., Takada S., Yamashita Y., Ishikawa S., Fujiwara S., Watanabe H., Kurashina K., Hatanaka H., Bando M., Ohno S., Ishikawa Y., Aburatani H., Niki T., Sohara Y., Sugiyama Y., Mano H. Identification of the transforming EML4-ALK fusion gene in non-small-cell lung cancer. Nature 2007, 448:561-566.
9. Kwak E.L., Bang Y.J., Camidge D.R., Shaw A.T., Solomon B., Maki R.G., Ou S.H., Dezube B.J., Janne P.A., Costa D.B., Varella-Garcia M., Kim W.H., Lynch T.J., Fidias P., Stubbs H., Engelman J.A., Sequist L.V., Tan W., Gandhi L., Mino-Kenudson M., Wei G.C., Shreeve S.M., Ratain M.J., Settleman J., Christensen J.G., Haber D.A., Wilner K., Salgia R., Shapiro G.I., Clark J.W., Iafrate A.J. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase inhibition in non-small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363:1693-1703.
10. Weinberg R.A. The biology of cancer, Garland Science 2007, Tailor & Francis Group, LLC, New York.
11. Toyokuni S., Akatsuka S. What has been learned from the studies of oxidative stress-induced carcinogenesis: Proposal of the concept of oxygenomics. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2006, 39:3-10.
12. Toyokuni S. Role of iron in carcinogenesis: cancer as a ferrotoxic disease. Cancer Sci. 2009, 100:9-16.
13. Toyokuni S., Sagripanti J.L. Iron-mediated DNA damage: sensitive detection of DNA strand breakage catalyzed by iron. J. Inorg. Biochem. 1992, 47:241-248.
14. Toyokuni S., Okada S., Hamazaki S., Minamiyama Y., Yamada Y., Liang P., Fukunaga Y., Midorikawa O. Combined histochemical and biochemical analysis of sex hormone dependence of ferric nitrilotriacetate-induced renal lipid peroxidation in ddY mice. Cancer Res. 1990, 50:5574-5580.
15. Ebina Y., Okada S., Hamazaki S., Ogino F., Li J.L., Midorikawa O. Nephrotoxicity and renal cell carcinoma after use of iron- and aluminum- nitrilotriacetate complexes in rats. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1986, 76:107-113.
16. Li J.L., Okada S., Hamazaki S., Ebina Y., Midorikawa O. Subacute nephrotoxicity and induction of renal cell carcinoma in mice treated with ferric nitrilotriacetate. Cancer Res. 1987, 47:1867-1869.
17. Akatsuka S., Yamashita Y., Ohara H., Liu Y.T., Izumiya M., Abe K., Ochiai M., Jiang L., Nagai H., Okazaki Y., Murakami H., Sekido Y., Arai E., Kanai Y., Hino O., Takahashi T., Nakagama H., Toyokuni S. Fenton reaction induced cancer in wild type rats recapitulates genomic alterations observed in human cancer. PLoS One 2012, 7:e43403.
18. Zacharski L., Chow B., Howes P., Shamayeva G., Baron J., Dalman R., Malenka D., Ozaki C., Levori P. Decreased cancer risk after iron reduction in patients with peripheral arterial disease: Results from a randomized trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2008, 100:996-1002.
19. Chu B.C., Garcia-Herrero A., Johanson T.H., Krewulak K.D., Lau C.K., Peacock R.S., Slavinskaya Z., Vogel H.J. Siderophore uptake in bacteria and the battle for iron with the host; a bird's eye view. Biometals 2010, 23:601-611.
20. Toyokuni S. Iron as a target of chemoprevention for longevity in humans. Free Radic. Res. 2011, 45:906-917.
21. Kowdley K.V. Iron, hemochromatosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004, 127:S79-S86.
22. Zacharski L., Ornstein D., Woloshin S., Schwartz L. Association of age, sex, and race with body iron stores in adults: analysis of NHANES III data. Am. Heart J. 2000, 140:98-104.
23. Clevers H. At the crossroads of inflammation and cancer. Cell 2004, 118:671-674.
24. Mantovani A., Allavena P., Sica A., Balkwill F. Cancer-related inflammation. Nature 2008, 454:436-444.
25. McKie A., Marciani P., Rolfs A., Brennan K., Wehr K., Barrow D., Miret S., Bomford A., Peters T., Farzaneh F., Hediger M., Hentze M., Simpson R. A novel duodenal iron-regulated transporter, IREG1, implicated in the basolateral transfer of iron to the circulation. Mol. Cell 2000, 5:299-309.
26. Nemeth E., Preza G., Jung C., Kaplan J., Waring A., Ganz T. The N-terminus of hepcidin is essential for its interaction with ferroportin: structure-function study. Blood 2006, 107:328-333.
27. Nemeth E., Ganz T. Regulation of iron metabolism by hepcidin. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2006, 26:323-342.
28. Toyokuni S. Mechanisms of asbestos-induced carcinogenesis. Nagoya J. Med. Sci. 2009, 71:1-10.
29. Huang S.X., Jaurand M.C., Kamp D.W., Whysner J., Hei T.K. Role of mutagenicity in asbestos fiber-induced carcinogenicity and other diseases. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev. 2011, 14:179-245.
30. Testa J.R., Cheung M., Pei J., Below J.E., Tan Y., Sementino E., Cox N.J., Dogan A.U., Pass H.I., Trusa S., Hesdorffer M., Nasu M., Powers A., Rivera Z., Comertpay S., Tanji M., Gaudino G., Yang H., Carbone M. Germline BAP1 mutations predispose to malignant mesothelioma. Nat. Genet. 2011, 43:1022-1025.
31. 79 Kubota workers killed by asbestos over 26years (2005.06.30). The Daily Yomiuri 2005.
32. Robinson B., Lake R. Advances in malignant mesothelioma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 353:1591-1603.
33. Robinson B., Musk A., Lake R. Malignant mesothelioma. Lancet 2005, 366:397-408.
34. Lindenmann J., Matzi V., Neuboeck N., Anegg U., Maier A., Smolle J., Smolle-Juettner F.M. Multimodal therapy of malignant pleural mesothelioma: is the replacement of radical surgery imminent?. Interact. Cardiovasc. Thorac. Surg. 2012, 16:237-243.
35. Editorial Nature Editorials this week: Asbestos scandal. Nature 2010, 46(8):868.
36. Poland C., Duffin R., Kinloch I., Maynard A., Wallace W., Seaton A., Stone V., Brown S., Macnee W., Donaldson K. Carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice show asbestos-like pathogenicity in a pilot study. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2008, 3:423-428.
37. Nagai H., Chew S., Okazaki Y., Funahashi S., Namba T., Kato T., Enomoto A., Jiang L., Akatsuka S., Toyokuni S. Metamorphosis of mesothelial cells wtih active horizontal motility in tissue culture. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3:1144.
38. Jiang L., Nagai H., Ohara H., Hara S., Tachibana M., Hirano S., Shinohara Y., Kohyama N., Akatsuka S., Toyokuni S. Characteristics and modifying factors of asbestos-induced oxidative DNA damage. Cancer Sci. 2008, 99:2142-2151.
39. Nagai H., Okazaki Y., Chew S., Misawa N., Yamashita Y., Akatsuka S., Yamashita K., Ishihara T., Yoshikawa Y., Jiang L., Ohara H., Takahashi T., Ichihara G., Kostarelos K., Miyata Y., Shinohara H., Toyokuni S. Diameter of multi-walled carbon nanotubes is a critical factor in mesothelial injury and subsequent carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108:E1330-E1338.
40. Kubo Y., Takenaka H., Nagai H., Toyokuni S. Distinct affinity of nuclear proteins to the surface of chrysotile and crocidolite. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2012, 51:221-226.
41. Nagai H., Ishihara T., Lee W.H., Ohara H., Okazaki Y., Okawa K., Toyokuni S. Asbestos surface provides a niche for oxidative modification. Cancer Sci. 2011, 102:2118-2125.
42. Jiang L., Akatsuka S., Nagai H., Chew S.H., Ohara H., Okazaki Y., Yamashita Y., Yoshikawa Y., Yasui H., Ikuta K., Sasaki K., Kohgo Y., Hirano S., Shinohara Y., Kohyama N., Takahashi T., Toyokuni S. Iron overload signature in chrysotile-induced malignant mesothelioma. J. Pathol. 2012, 228:366-377.
43. Stanton M.F., Layard M., Tegeris A., Miller E., May M., Morgan E., Smith A. Relation of particle dimension to carcinogenicity in amphibole asbestoses and other fibrous minerals. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1981, 67:965-975.
44. Jean D., Thomas E., Manie E., Renier A., de Reynies A., Lecomte C., Andujar P., Fleury-Feith J., Galateau-Salle F., Giovannini M., Zucman-Rossi J., Stern M.H., Jaurand M.C. Syntenic relationships between genomic profiles of fiber-induced murine and human malignant mesothelioma. Am. J. Pathol. 2011, 178:881-894.
45. Bott M., Brevet M., Taylor B.S., Shimizu S., Ito T., Wang L., Creaney J., Lake R.A., Zakowski M.F., Reva B., Sander C., Delsite R., Powell S., Zhou Q., Shen R., Olshen A., Rusch V., Ladanyi M. The nuclear deubiquitinase BAP1 is commonly inactivated by somatic mutations and 3p21.1 losses in malignant pleural mesothelioma. Nat. Genet. 2011, 43:668-672.
46. Xio S., Li D., Vijg J., Sugarbaker D., Corson J., Fletcher J. Codeletion of p15 and p16 in primary malignant mesothelioma. Oncogene 1995, 11:511-515.
47. INK4A tumor suppressor genes in oxystress-induced renal cell carcinoma of rats. Oncogene 1999, 18:3793-3797.
48. Hiroyasu M., Ozeki M., Kohda H., Echizenya M., Tanaka T., Hiai H., Toyokuni S. Specific allelic loss of p16 (INK4A) tumor suppressor gene after weeks of iron-mediated oxidative damage during rat renal carcinogenesis. Am. J. Pathol. 2002, 160:419-424.
49. Hu Q., Akatsuka S., Yamashita Y., Ohara H., Nagai H., Okazaki Y., Takahashi T., Toyokuni S. Homozygous deletion of CDKN2A/2B is a hallmark of iron-induced high-grade rat mesothelioma. Lab. Invest. 2010, 90:360-373.
50. Shelby M.D. The genetic toxicity of human carcinogens and its implications. Mutat. Res. 1988, 204:3-15.
51. Maron D.M., Ames B.N. Revised methods for the Salmonella mutagenicity test. Mutat. Res. 1983, 113:173-215.
52. Pope C.A., Burnett R.T., Thun M.J., Calle E.E., Krewski D., Ito K., Thurston G.D. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA 2002, 287:1132-1141.
53. Wang D., Minami Y., Shu Y., Konno S., Iijima T., Morishita Y., Noguchi M. The implication of background anthracosis in the development and progression of pulmonary adenocarcinoma. Cancer Sci. 2003, 94:707-711.
54. Turner M.C., Krewski D., Pope C.A., Chen Y., Gapstur S.M., Thun M.J. Long-term ambient fine particulate matter air pollution and lung cancer in a large cohort of never-smokers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 184:1374-1381.
55. Hou M., Morishita Y., Iljima T., Inadome Y., Mase K., Dai Y., Noguchi M. DNA methylation and expression of p16(INK4A) gene in pulmonary adenocarcinoma and anthracosis in background lung. Int. J. Cancer 1999, 84:609-613.
56. Kroto H., Heath J., O'Brien S., Curl R., Smalley R. C60: Buckminsterfullerene. Nature 1985, 318:162-163.
57. Iijima S. Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature 1991, 354:56-58.
58. Singh R., Pantarotto D., Lacerda L., Pastorin G., Klumpp C., Prato M., Bianco A., Kostarelos K. Tissue biodistribution and blood clearance rates of intravenously administered carbon nanotube radiotracers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006, 103:3357-3362.
59. Hubbs A.F., Mercer R.R., Benkovic S.A., Harkema J., Sriram K., Schwegler-Berry D., Goravanahally M.P., Nurkiewicz T.R., Castranova V., Sargent L.M. Nanotoxicology - a pathologist's perspective. Toxicol. Pathol. 2011, 39:301-324.
60. Sargent L.M., Hubbs A.F., Young S.H., Kashon M.L., Dinu C.Z., Salisbury J.L., Benkovic S.A., Lowry D.T., Murray A.R., Kisin E.R., Siegrist K.J., Battelli L., Mastovich J., Sturgeon J.L., Bunker K.L., Shvedova A.A., Reynolds S.H. Single-walled carbon nanotube-induced mitotic disruption. Mutat. Res. 2012, 745:28-37.
61. Takagi A., Hirose A., Nishimura T., Fukumori N., Ogata A., Ohashi N., Kitajima S., Kanno J. Induction of mesothelioma in p53+/- mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 33:105-116.
62. Ichihara G., Castranova V., Tanioka A., Miyazawa K. Re: Induction of mesothelioma in p53+/- mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 33:381-382. (author reply 382-384).
63. Donaldson K., Stone V., Seaton A., Tran L., Aitken R., Poland C. Re: induction of mesothelioma in p53+/- mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 33:385. (author reply 386-388).
64. Takagi A., Hirose A., Futakuchi M., Tsuda H., Kanno J. Dose-dependent mesothelioma induction by intraperitoneal administration of multi-wall carbon nanotubes in p53 heterozygous mice. Cancer Sci. 2012, 103:1440-1444.
65. Sakamoto Y., Nakae D., Fukumori N., Tayama K., Maekawa A., Imai K., Hirose A., Nishimura T., Ohashi N., Ogata A. Induction of mesothelioma by a single intrascrotal administration of multi-wall carbon nanotube in intact male Fischer 344 rats. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 34:65-76.
66. Tanigawa H., Onodera H., Maekawa A. Spontaneous mesotheliomas in Fischer rats-a histological and electron microscopic study. Toxicol. Pathol. 1987, 15:157-163.
67. Miyashita T., Reed J.C. Tumor suppressor p53 is a direct transcriptional activator of the human bax gene. Cell 1995, 80:293-299.
68. Hisada M., Garber J.E., Fung C.Y., Fraumeni J.F., Li F.P. Multiple primary cancers in families with Li-Fraumeni syndrome. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1998, 90:606-611.
69. Vogelstein B., Kinzler K.W. The Genetic Basis of Human Cancer 1998, McGraw-Hill, New York.
70. Fenoglio I., Aldieri E., Gazzano E., Cesano F., Colonna M., Scarano D., Mazzucco G., Attanasio A., Yakoub Y., Lison D., Fubini B. Thickness of multiwalled carbon nanotubes affects their lung toxicity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2012, 25:74-82.
71. Husain A.N., Colby T.V., Ordonez N.G., Krausz T., Borczuk A., Cagle P.T., Chirieac L.R., Churg A., Galateau-Salle F., Gibbs A.R., Gown A.M., Hammar S.P., Litzky L.A., Roggli V.L., Travis W.D., Wick M.R. Guidelines for pathologic diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma: a consensus statement from the International Mesothelioma Interest Group. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2009, 133:1317-1331.
72. Porter D.W., Hubbs A.F., Mercer R.R., Wu N., Wolfarth M.G., Sriram K., Leonard S., Battelli L., Schwegler-Berry D., Friend S., Andrew M., Chen B.T., Tsuruoka S., Endo M., Castranova V. Mouse pulmonary dose- and time course-responses induced by exposure to multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Toxicology 2010, 269:136-147.
73. Mercer R.R., Hubbs A.F., Scabilloni J.F., Wang L., Battelli L.A., Schwegler-Berry D., Castranova V., Porter D.W. Distribution and persistence of pleural penetrations by multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2010, 7:28.
74. Xu J., Futakuchi M., Shimizu H., Alexander D.B., Yanagihara K., Fukamachi K., Suzui M., Kanno J., Hirose A., Ogata A., Sakamoto Y., Nakae D., Omori T., Tsuda H. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes translocate into the pleural cavity and induce visceral mesothelial proliferation in rats [In Process Citation]. Cancer Sci. 2012, 103:2045-2050.
75. Muller J., Delos M., Panin N., Rabolli V., Huaux F., Lison D. Absence of carcinogenic response to multiwall carbon nanotubes in a 2-year bioassay in the peritoneal cavity of the rat. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 110:442-448.
76. Murphy F.A., Poland C.A., Duffin R., Al-Jamal T., Ali-Boucetta H., Nunes A., Byrne F., Prina-Mello A., Volkov Y., Li S., Mather S.J., Bianco A., Prato M., Macnee W., Wallace W.A., Kostarelos K., Donaldson K. Length-dependent retention of carbon nanotubes in the pleural space of mice initiates sustained inflammation and progressive fibrosis on the parietal pleura. Am. J. Pathol. 2011, 178:2587-2600.
77. Takanashi S., Hara K., Aoki K., Usui Y., Shimizu M., Haniu H., Ogihara N., Ishigaki N., Nakamura K., Okamoto M., Kobayashi S., Kato H., Sano K., Nishimura N., Tsutsumi H., Machida K., Saito N. Carcinogenicity evaluation for the application of carbon nanotubes as biomaterials in rasH2 mice. Sci. Rep. 2012, 2:498.
78. Morton D., Alden C.L., Roth A.J., Usui T. The Tg rasH2 mouse in cancer hazard identification. Toxicol. Pathol. 2002, 30:139-146.
79. Kato T., Totsuka Y., Ishino K., Matsumoto Y., Tada Y., Nakae D., Goto S., Masuda S., Ogo S., Kawanishi M., Yagi T., Matsuda T., Watanabe M., Wakabayashi K. Genotoxicity of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in both invitro and in vivo assay systems. Nanotoxicology Apr 4 2012, (Epub ahead of print). 10.3109/17435390.2012.674571.
80. Dizdaroglu M. Chemical determination of free radical-induced damage to DNA. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1991, 10:225-242.
81. Toyokuni S., Tanaka T., Hattori Y., Nishiyama Y., Ochi H., Hiai H., Uchida K., Osawa T. Quantitative immunohistochemical determination of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine by a monoclonal antibody N45.1: its application to ferric nitrilotriacetate-induced renal carcinogenesis model. Lab. Invest. 1997, 76:365-374.
82. Nagai H., Toyokuni S. Differences and similarities between carbon nanotubes and asbestos fibers during mesothelila carcinogenesis. Cancer Sci. 2012, 103:1378-1390.
83. Yamaguchi A., Fujitani T., Ohyama K., Nakae D., Hirose A., Nishimura T., Ogata A. Effects of sustained stimulation with multi-wall carbon nanotubes on immune and inflammatory responses in mice. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2012, 37:177-189.
84. Liao Y., Tsoh J.Y., Chen R., Foo M.A., Garvin C.C., Grigg-Saito D., Liang S., McPhee S., Nguyen T.T., Tran J.H., Giles W.H. Decreases in smoking prevalence in Asian communities served by the Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) project. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100:853-860.
85. Pierce J.P., Messer K., White M.M., Cowling D.W., Thomas D.P. Prevalence of heavy smoking in California and the United States, 1965-2007. JAMA 2011, 305:1106-1112.
86. Carreras G., Gorini G., Gallus S., Iannucci L., Levy D.T. Predicting the future prevalence of cigarette smoking in Italy over the next three decades. Eur. J. Public Health 2012, 22:699-704.
87. Hecht S.S. Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2003, 3:733-744.
88. Wraith D., Mengersen K. Assessing the combined effect of asbestos exposure and smoking on lung cancer: a Bayesian approach. Stat. Med. 2007, 26:1150-1169.
89. Wild P., Gonzalez M., Bourgkard E., Courouble N., Clement-Duchene C., Martinet Y., Fevotte J., Paris C. Occupational risk factors have to be considered in the definition of high-risk lung cancer populations. Br. J. Cancer 2012, 106:1346-1352.
90. Rahman I., MacNee W. Role of oxidants/antioxidants in smoking-induced lung diseases. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1996, 21:669-681.
91. Burns D.M. Epidemiology of smoking-induced cardiovascular disease. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2003, 46:11-29.
92. Ghio A.J., Smith C.B., Madden M.C. Diesel exhaust particles and airway inflammation. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 2012, 18:144-150.
93. Scheepers P.T., Vermeulen R.C. Diesel engine exhaust classified as a human lung carcinogen. How will this affect occupational exposures?. Occup. Environ. Med. 2012, 69:691-693.
94. Cosio M.G., Saetta M., Agusti A. Immunologic aspects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360:2445-2454.
95. Sahn S.A., Heffner J.E. Spontaneous pneumothorax. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 342:868-874.
96. Li Z., Hulderman T., Salmen R., Chapman R., Leonard S.S., Young S.H., Shvedova A., Luster M.I., Simeonova P.P. Cardiovascular effects of pulmonary exposure to single-wall carbon nanotubes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115:377-382.
97. J. Nakanishi, Risk assessment of Manufactured Nanomaterilas: Carbon Nanotubes (CNT). Final report issued on August 17, 2011. NEDO project (P06041) "Research and Development of Nanoparticle Chracterization Methods", 2011.
98. Gunshin H., Mackenzie B., Berger U., Gunshin Y., Romero M., Boron W., Nussberger S., Gollan J., Hediger M. Cloning and characterization of a mammalian proton-coupled metal-ion transporter. Nature 1997, 388:482-488.
99. Maliken B.D., Nelson J.E., Kowdley K.V. The hepcidin circuits act: balancing iron and inflammation. Hepatology 2011, 53:1764-1766.
100. Kisin E.R., Murray A.R., Keane M.J., Shi X.C., Schwegler-Berry D., Gorelik O., Arepalli S., Castranova V., Wallace W.E., Kagan V.E., Shvedova A.A. Single-walled carbon nanotubes: geno- and cytotoxic effects in lung fibroblast V79 cells. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2007, 70:2071-2079.
101. Naya M., Kobayashi N., Mizuno K., Matsumoto K., Ema M., Nakanishi J. Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of single-wall carbon nanotubes by using a battery of in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity assays. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2011, 61:192-198.
102. Wirnitzer U., Herbold B., Voetz M., Ragot J. Studies on the in vitro genotoxicity of baytubes, agglomerates of engineered multi-walled carbon-nanotubes (MWCNT). Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 186:160-165.
103. Di Sotto A., Chiaretti M., Carru G.A., Bellucci S., Mazzanti G. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes: lack of mutagenic activity in the bacterial reverse mutation assay. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 184:192-197.
104. Jacobsen N.R., Pojana G., White P., Moller P., Cohn C.A., Korsholm K.S., Vogel U., Marcomini A., Loft S., Wallin H. Genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reactive oxygen species induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes and C(60) fullerenes in the FE1-Mutatrade markMouse lung epithelial cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2008, 49:476-487.
105. Pacurari M., Yin X.J., Zhao J., Ding M., Leonard S.S., Schwegler-Berry D., Ducatman B.S., Sbarra D., Hoover M.D., Castranova V., Vallyathan V. Raw single-wall carbon nanotubes induce oxidative stress and activate MAPKs, AP-1, NF-kappaB, and Akt in normal and malignant human mesothelial cells. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116:1211-1217.
106. Yang H., Liu C., Yang D., Zhang H., Xi Z. Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: the role of particle size, shape and composition. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2009, 29:69-78.
107. Lindberg H.K., Falck G.C., Suhonen S., Vippola M., Vanhala E., Catalan J., Savolainen K., Norppa H. Genotoxicity of nanomaterials: DNA damage and micronuclei induced by carbon nanotubes and graphite nanofibres in human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 186:166-173.
108. Migliore L., Saracino D., Bonelli A., Colognato R., D'Errico M.R., Magrini A., Bergamaschi A., Bergamaschi E. Carbon nanotubes induce oxidative DNA damage in RAW 264.7 cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2010, 51:294-303.
109. Patlolla A., Knighten B., Tchounwou P. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes induce cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and apoptosis in normal human dermal fibroblast cells. Ethn. Dis. 2010, 20. (S1-65-72).
110. Guo F., Ma N., Horibe Y., Kawanishi S., Murata M., Hiraku Y. Nitrative DNA damage induced by multi-walled carbon nanotube via endocytosis in human lung epithelial cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2012, 260:183-192.
111. Zeni O., Palumbo R., Bernini R., Zeni L., Sarti M., Scarfi M. Cytotoxicity investigation on cultured human blood cells treated with single-walled carbon nanotubes. Sensors 2008, 8:488-499.
112. Asakura M., Sasaki T., Sugiyama T., Takaya M., Koda S., Nagano K., Arito H., Fukushima S. Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of multi-wall carbon nanotubes in cultured Chinese hamster lung cells in comparison with chrysotile A fibers. J. Occup. Health 2010, 52:155-166.
113. Szendi K., Varga C. Lack of genotoxicity of carbon nanotubes in a pilot study. Anticancer. Res. 2008, 28:349-352.
114. Cveticanin J., Joksic G., Leskovac A., Petrovic S., Sobot A.V., Neskovic O. Using carbon nanotubes to induce micronuclei and double strand breaks of the DNA in human cells. Nanotechnology 2010, 21:015102.
115. Muller J., Decordier I., Hoet P.H., Lombaert N., Thomassen L., Huaux F., Lison D., Kirsch-Volders M. Clastogenic and aneugenic effects of multi-wall carbon nanotubes in epithelial cells. Carcinogenesis 2008, 29:427-433.
116. Zhu L., Chang D.W., Dai L., Hong Y. DNA damage induced by multiwalled carbon nanotubes in mouse embryonic stem cells. Nano Lett. 2007, 7:3592-3597.
117. Guo Y.Y., Zhang J., Zheng Y.F., Yang J., Zhu X.Q. Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of multi-wall carbon nanotubes on human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. Mutat. Res. 2011, 721:184-191.
118. Shvedova A.A., Kisin E., Murray A.R., Johnson V.J., Gorelik O., Arepalli S., Hubbs A.F., Mercer R.R., Keohavong P., Sussman N., Jin J., Yin J., Stone S., Chen B.T., Deye G., Maynard A., Castranova V., Baron P.A., Kagan V.E. Inhalation vs. aspiration of single-walled carbon nanotubes in C57BL/6 mice: inflammation, fibrosis, oxidative stress, and mutagenesis. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 2008, 295:L552-L565.
119. Jacobsen N.R., Moller P., Jensen K.A., Vogel U., Ladefoged O., Loft S., Wallin H. Lung inflammation and genotoxicity following pulmonary exposure to nanoparticles in ApoE-/- mice. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2009, 6:2.
120. Folkmann J.K., Risom L., Jacobsen N.R., Wallin H., Loft S., Moller P. Oxidatively damaged DNA in rats exposed by oral gavage to C60 fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117:703-708.
121. Patlolla A.K., Hussain S.M., Schlager J.J., Patlolla S., Tchounwou P.B. Comparative study of the clastogenicity of functionalized and nonfunctionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes in bone marrow cells of Swiss-Webster mice. Environ. Toxicol. 2010, 25:608-621.