Emerging drugs of abuse

Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 1-28

  Nelson, Michael E ^a,b   Bryant, Sean M ^b   Aks, Steven E ^b  

^a NORTHSHORE UNIVERSITY HEALTHSYSTEM   (United States)

^b Jr Hospital of Cook County   (United States)

Author keywords

Herbal drugs of abuse; Managing new drug exposures; Phenethylamines; Piperazines; Prescription drug abuse; Synthetic cannabinoids; Synthetic cathinones

Indexed keywords

1 DEOXY 3 (1,1 DIMETHYLBUTYL) DELTA8 TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; 2 METHYL 3 (1 NAPHTHOYL) 1 PROPYLINDOLE; 3 (1 NAPHTHOYL) 1 PENTYLINDOLE; 3,4 METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE; 4' METHYLMETHCATHINONE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CANNABINOID DERIVATIVE; CANNABINOID RECEPTOR; CANNABIS; CATHINONE; DEXANABINOL; DRONABINOL; HERBACEOUS AGENT; ILLICIT DRUG; KRYPTON; MELANOTAN II; METHCATHINONE; METHYLONE; NABILONE; NABIXIMOLS; NON PRESCRIPTION DRUG; OPIATE; PHENETHYLAMINE; PHENETHYLAMINE DERIVATIVE; PIPERAZINE DERIVATIVE; PRESCRIPTION DRUG; PYROVALERONE; SALVIANOLIC ACID B; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; UNINDEXED DRUG;

BINDING AFFINITY; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG CLASSIFICATION; DRUG EXPOSURE; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; DRUG SCREENING; EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN; EPIDEMIC; HUMAN; LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; MASS FRAGMENTOGRAPHY; MASS SPECTROMETRY; NONHUMAN; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SUPPORT GROUP; THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY; VOMITING;

HERBAL DRUGS OF ABUSE; MANAGING NEW DRUG EXPOSURES; PHENETHYLAMINES; PIPERAZINES; PRESCRIPTION DRUG ABUSE; SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS; SYNTHETIC CATHINONES;

CANNABINOIDS; DESIGNER DRUGS; EMERGENCY MEDICINE; HUMANS; PRESCRIPTION DRUG MISUSE; PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SYMPATHOMIMETICS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84888136526     PISSN: 07338627     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.emc.2013.09.001     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Chary M., Genes N., McKenzie A., et al. Leveraging social networks for toxicovigilance. JMed Toxicol 2013, 9:184-191.
2. Deluca P., Davey Z., Corazza O., et al. Identifying emerging trends in recreational drug use; outcomes from the Psychonaut Web Mapping Project. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012, 39:221-226.
3. Gibbons S. "Legal highs" - novel and emerging psychoactive drugs: a chemical overview for the toxicologist. Clin Toxicol 2012, 50:15-24.
4. Sutter M.E., Chenoweth J., Albertson T.E. Alternative drugs of abuse. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2013, 10.1007/s12016-013-8370-2.
5. Aleksander I. Molly: pure but not so simple. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 24, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/fashion/molly-pure-but-not-so-simple.html?pagewanted=1%26_r=1%26hpw%26.
6. Okie S. The flood of opioids: a rising tide of deaths. NEngl J Med 2010, 363:1981-1985.
7. Ibanez G.E., Levi-Minzi M.A., Rigg K.K., et al. Diversion of benzodiazepines through healthcare sources. JPsychoactive Drugs 2013, 45:48-56.
8. Nelson A., Galon P. Exploring the relationship among ADHD, stimulants, and substance abuse. JChild Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs 2012, 25:113-118.
9. Paulozzi L.J., Kilbourn E.M., Desai H.A. Prescription drug monitoring programs and death rates from drug overdose. Pain Med 2011, 12:747-754.
10. Manchikanti L. National drug control policy and prescription drug abuse: facts and fallacies. Pain Physician 2007, 10:399-424.
11. Pomeranz J.L., Taylor L.M., Austin S.B. Over-the-counter and out-of-control: legal strategies to protect youths from abusing products for weight control. Am J Public Health 2013, 103:220-225.
12. Brennan B.P., Kanayama G., Pope H.G. Performance-enhancing drugs on the web: a growing public-health issue. Am J Addict 2013, 22:158-161.
13. Thevis M., Kuuranne T., Geyer H., et al. Annual banned-substance review: analytical approaches in human sports drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2013, 5:1-19.
14. Nelson M.E., Bryant S.M., Aks S.E. Melanotan II injection resulting in systemic toxicity and rhabdomyolysis. Clin Toxicol 2012, 50:1165-1168.
15. Ward J., Rhyee S., Plansky J., et al. Methoxetamine: a novel ketamine analog and growing health-care concern. Clin Toxicol 2011, 49:874-875.
16. Booth R.E. Krokodil and other home-produced drugs for injection: a perspective from Ukraine. Int J Drug Policy 2013, 24:277-278.
17. Wolk B.J., Ganetsky M., Babu K.M. Toxicity of energy drinks. Curr Opin Pediatr 2012, 24:243-251.
18. Adams I.B., Martin B.R. Cannabis: pharmacology and toxicology in animals and humans. Addiction 1996, 91:1586-1614.
19. Gunderson E.W., Haughey H.M., Ait-Daoud N., et al. "Spice" and "K2" herbal highs: a case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans. Am J Addict 2012, 21:320-326.
20. Seely K.A., Lapoint J., Moran J.H., et al. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: a review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012, 39:234-243.
21. Seely K.A., Prather P.L., James L.P., et al. Marijuana-based drugs: innovative therapeutics or designer drugs of abuse. Mol Interv 2011, 11:36-51.
22. Auwärter V., Dresen S., Weinmann W., et al. Spice and other herbal blends: harmless incense or cannabinoid designer drugs?. JMass Spectrom 2009, 44:832-837.
23. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) EMCDDA 2009 thematic paper - understanding the 'Spice' phenomenon 2009, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
24. Vardakou I., Pistos C., Spiliopoulou C.H. Spice drugs as a new trend: mode of action, identification and legislation. Toxicol Lett 2010, 197:157-162.
25. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Synthetic cannabinoids and 'Spice.' Available at: Accessed September 2, 2013. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/synthetic-cannabinoids.
26. Einhorn L., Nagy C., Furnas B., et al. Nabilone: an effective antiemetic in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy. JClin Pharmacol 1981, 21:64S-69S.
27. United States Adopted Names Council: Statement on a nonprioprietary name. Available at: Accessed June 4, 2013. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/365/nabiximols.pdf.
28. Weissman A., Milne G.M., Melvin L.S. Cannabimimetic activity from CP-47,497, a derivative of 3-phenylcyclohexanol. JPharmacol Exp Ther 1982, 223:516-523.
29. Bell M.R., D'Ambra T.E., Kumar V., et al. Antinociceptive (aminoalkyl)indoles. JMed Chem 1991, 34:1099-1110.
30. Rosenbaum C.D., Carreiro S.P., Babu K.M. Here today, gone tomorrow... and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), Kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:15-32.
31. Huffman J.W., Dai D. Design, synthesis and pharmacology of cannabimimetic indoles. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1994, 4:563-566.
32. Huffman J.W., Yu S., Showalter V., et al. Synthesis and pharmacology of a very potent cannabinoid lacking a phenolic hydroxyl with high affinity for the CB2 receptor. JMed Chem 1996, 39:3875-3877.
33. Wiley J.L., Comptom D.R., Dai D., et al. Structure-activity relationships of indole- and pyrrole-derived cannabinoids. JPharmacol Exp Ther 1998, 285:995-1004.
34. Huffman J.W. Cannabimimetic indoles, pyrroles, and indenes: structure-activity relationships and receptor interactions. The cannabinoid receptors, 1 2009, 49-94. Humana Press, New York. P.H. Reggio (Ed.).
35. 1 receptor agonist. Br J Pharmacol 2010, 160:585-593.
36. Lapoint J., James L.P., Moran C.L., et al. Severe toxicity following synthetic cannabinoid ingestion. Clin Toxicol 2011, 49:760-764.
37. Wood K.E. Exposure to bath salts and synthetic tetrahydrocannabinol from 2009 to 2012 in the United States. JPediatr 2013, 163:213-216.
38. Schedules of controlled substances: temporary placement of five synthetic cannabinoids into schedule I [FR Doc No: 11075-11078]. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Available at: Accessed June 5, 2013. http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2011/fr0301.htm.
39. Moran C.L., Le V.H., Chimalakonda K.C., et al. Quantitative measurement of JWH-018 and JWH-073 metabolites excreted in human urine. Anal Chem 2011, 83:4228-4236.
40. Johnston L.D., O'Malley P.M., Bachman J.G., et al. Monitoring the future national results on drug use: 2012 overview, key findings on adolescent drug use 2013, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (MI), Available at: Accessed June 6, 2013. http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-overview2012.pdf.
41. Heltsley R., Shelby M.K., Crouch D.J., et al. Prevalence of synthetic cannabinoids in U.S. athletes: initial findings. JAnal Toxicol 2012, 36:588-593.
42. Hoyte C.O., Jacob J., Monte A.A., et al. Acharacterization of synthetic cannabinoid exposures reported to the national poison data system in 2010. Ann Emerg Med 2012, 60:435-438.
43. Forrester M.B., Kleinschmidt K., Schwarz E., et al. Synthetic cannabinoid and marijuana exposures reported to poison centers. Hum Exp Toxicol 2012, 31:1006-1011.
44. Winstock A.R., Barratt M.J. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013, 131:106-111.
45. Lank P.M., Pines E., Mycyk M.B. Emergency physicians' knowledge of cannabinoid designer drugs. West J Emerg Med 2013, 14(5):1-4. Available at: Accessed September 2, 2013. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9mk2951f.
46. Ameri A. The effects of cannabinoids on the brain. Prog Neurobiol 1999, 58:315-348.
47. Pertwee R.G. Receptors and channels targeted by synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists. Curr Med Chem 2010, 17:1360-1381.
48. Gronewold A., Skopp G. Apreliminary investigation on the distribution of cannabinoids in man. Forensic Sci Int 2011, 210:e7-e11.
49. Shim J.Y., Welsh W.J., Howlett A.C. Homology model of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor: sites critical for nonclassical cannabinoid agonist interaction. Biopolymers 2003, 71:169-189.
50. Teske J., Weller J.P., Fieguth A., et al. Sensitive and rapid quantification of thecannabinoid receptor agonist naphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl)methanone (JWH-018) in human serum by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. JChromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010, 878:2659-2663.
51. Brents L.K., Reichard E.E., Zimmerman S.M., et al. Phase I hydroxylated metabolites of the K2 synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 retain invitro and invivo cannabinoid 1 receptor affinity and activity. PLoS One 2011, 6:e21917.
52. Rajasekaran M., Brents L.K., Franks L.N., et al. Human metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 and JWH-073 bind with high affinity and act as potent agonists at cannabinoid type-2 receptors. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2013, 269:100-108.
53. Castellanos D., Singh S., Thornton G., et al. Synthetic cannabinoid use: a case series of adolescents. JAdolesc Health 2011, 49:347-349.
54. Hurst D., Loeffler G., McLay R. Psychosis associated with synthetic cannabinoid agonists: a case series. Am J Psychiatry 2011, 168:1119.
55. Müller H., Sperling W., Köhrmann M., et al. The synthetic cannabinoid Spice as a trigger for an acute exacerbation of cannabis induced recurrent psychotic episodes. Schizophr Res 2010, 118:309-310.
56. Every-Palmer S. Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and psychosis: an explorative study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011, 117:152-157.
57. Schneir A.B., Cullen J., Ly B.T. "Spice" girls: synthetic cannabinoid intoxication. JEmerg Med 2011, 40:296-299.
58. Schneir A.B., Baumbacher T. Convulsions associated with the use of a synthetic cannabinoid product. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:62-64.
59. Tofighi B., Lee J.D. Internet highs - seizures after consumption of synthetic cannabinoids purchased online. JAddict Med 2012, 6:240-241.
60. Pant S., Deshmukh A., Dholaria B., et al. Spicy seizure. Am J Med Sci 2012, 344:67-68.
61. Mir A., Obafemi A., Young A., et al. Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. Pediatrics 2011, 128(6):e1622-e1627.
62. Simmons J.R., Skinner C.G., Williams J., et al. Intoxication from smoking "Spice". Ann Emerg Med 2011, 57(2):187-188.
63. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Acute kidney injury associated with synthetic cannabinoid use - multiple states 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012, 62:93-98.
64. Alhadi S., Tiwari A., Vohra R., et al. High times, low sats: diffuse pulmonary infiltrates associated with chronic synthetic cannabinoid use. JMed Toxicol 2013, 9:199-206.
65. Fattore L., Fratta W. Beyond THC: the new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs. Front Behav Neurosci 2011, 5:1-12.
66. Bronstein A.C., Spyker D.A., Cantilena L.R., et al. 2011 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS): 29th annual report. Clin Toxicol 2012, 50:911-1164.
67. Meier M.H., Caspi A., Ambler A., et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012, 109:E2657-E2664.
68. Duffy A., Milin R. Case study: withdrawal syndrome in adolescent chronic cannabis users. JAm Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996, 35:1618-1621.
69. Haney M. The marijuana withdrawal syndrome: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2005, 7:360-366.
70. Nacca N., Vatti D., Sullivan R., et al. The synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome. JAddict Med 2013, 7:296-298.
71. Zimmermann U.S., Winkelmann P.R., Philhatsch M., et al. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the consumption of "Spice Gold". Dtsch Arztebl Int 2009, 106:464-467.
72. National Medical Services (NMS) labs. NMS Labs Online Test Catalog. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 10, 2013. http://www.nmslabs.com/test-catalog/synthetic%20cannabinoids@0.
73. World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence Assessment of khat (Catha edulis Forsk). 34th ECDD 2006, WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, Geneva (Switzerland), Available at: Accessed June 11, 2013. http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/quality_safety/4.4KhatCritReview.pdf.
74. Prosser J.M., Nelson L.S. The toxicology of bath salts: a review of synthetic cathinones. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:33-42.
75. Brenneisen R., Fisch H.U., Koelbing U., et al. Amphetamine-like effects in humans of the khat alkaloid cathinone. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990, 30:825-828.
76. Ali W.M., Zubaid M., Al-Motarreb A., et al. Association of khat chewing with increased risk of stroke and death in patients presents with acute coronary syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 2010, 85:974-980.
77. Hyde J.F., Browning E., Adams R. Synthetic homologs of D,L-ephedrine. JAm Chem Soc 1928, 50:2287-2292.
78. Emerson T.S., Cisek J.E. Methcathinone: a Russian designer amphetamine infiltrates the rural Midwest. Ann Emerg Med 1993, 22:1897-1903.
79. Mehta MB. United States patent 3,819,706: Meta-chloro substituted α-butylamino-propiophenones. United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). 1974. Available at: Accessed June 13, 2013. http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=03819706%26homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%20.
80. United States Drug Enforcement Administration. Methcathinone. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 13, 2013. http://www.justice.gov/dea_old/concern/methcathinone.html.
81. Psychonaut Web Mapping Research Group Mephedrone 2009, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, Available at: Accessed June 13, 2013. http://www.psychonautproject.eu/newsletters/n2.php.
82. Dargan P.I., Albert S., Wood D.M. Mephedrone use and associated adverse effects in school and college/university students before the UK legislation change. QJM 2010, 103:875-879.
83. Winstock A.R., Mitcheson L.R., Deluca P., et al. Mephedrone, new kid for the chop?. Addiction 2010, 106:154-161.
84. Warrick B.J., Hill M., Hekman K., et al. A9-state analysis of designer stimulant, "bath salt, "hospital visits reported to poison control centers. Ann Emerg Med 2013, 62:244-251.
85. American Association of Poison Control Centers. Bath salts data. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 14, 2013. https://aapcc.s3.amazonaws.com/files/library/Bath_Salts_Data_for_Website_5.31.2013.pdf.
86. American Association of Poison Control Centers. Synthetic marijuana data. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 14, 2013. https://aapcc.s3.amazonaws.com/files/library/Synthetic_Marijuana_Data_for_Website_5.31.2013.pdf.
87. Winstock A., Mitcheson L., Marsden J. Mephedrone: still available and twice the price. Lancet 2010, 376:1537.
88. Gibbons S., Zloh M. An analysis of the 'legal high' mephedrone. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010, 20:4135-4139.
89. US Department of Justice DEA Notice of intent - scheduled of controlled substances: temporary placement of three synthetic cathinones into schedule I. Microgram Bulletin 2011, 44:57-65.
90. 112th Congress. S. 3190: Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012. Sec 2. Addition of Synthetic Drugs to Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act. Washington, DC: Library of Congress [May 16, 2012]. Available at: Accessed July 2, 2013. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/s3190/text.
91. Hill S.L., Thomas S.H. Clinical toxicology of newer recreational drugs. Clin Toxicol 2011, 49:705-719.
92. Marinetti L.J., Antonides H.M. Analysis of synthetic cathinones commonly found in bath salts in human performance and postmortem toxicology: method development, drug distribution and interpretation of results. JAnal Toxicol 2013, 37:135-146.
93. James D., Adams R.D., Spears R., et al. Clinical characteristics of mephedrone toxicity reported to the UK National Poisons Information Service. Emerg MedJ 2011, 28:686-689.
94. Schifano F., Albanese A., Fergus S., et al. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone; 'meow-meow'): chemical, pharmacological and clinical issues. Psychopharmacology 2011, 214:593-602.
95. Wood D.M., Davies S., Greene S.L., et al. Case series of individuals with analytically confirmed acute mephedrone toxicity. Clin Toxicol 2010, 48:924-927.
96. Coppola M., Mondola R. Synthetic cathinones: chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of a new class of designer drugs of abuse marketed as "bath salts" or "plant food". Toxicol Lett 2012, 211:144-149.
97. Cameron K., Kolanos R., Vekariya R., et al. Mephedrone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), major constituents of "bath salts, "produce opposite effects at the human dopamine transporter. Psychopharmacology 2013, 227:493-499.
98. Cozzi N.V., Sievert M.K., Shulgin A.T., et al. Inhibition of plasma membrane monoamine transporters by β-ketoamphetamines. Eur J Pharmacol 1999, 381:63-69.
99. Nagai F., Nonaka R., Satoh Hasashi Kamimura K. The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain. Eur J Pharmacol 2007, 559:132-137.
100. Meyer M.R., Wilhelm J., Peters F.T., et al. Beta-ketoamphetamines: studies on the metabolism of the designer drug mephedrone and toxicological detection of mephedrone, butylone, and methylone in urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010, 397:1225-1233.
101. Zaitsu K., Katagi M., Tatsuno M., et al. Recently abused β-keto derivatives of 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylalkylamines: a review of the metabolisms and toxicological analysis. Forensic Toxicol 2011, 29:73-84.
102. Meyer M.R., Du P., Schuster F., et al. Studies on the metabolism of the α-pyrrolidinophenone designer drug methylenedioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV) in rat and human urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high resolution MS and its detectability in urine by GC-MS. JMass Spectrom 2010, 45:1426-1442.
103. Wood D.M., Davies S., Puchnarewicz M., et al. Recreational use of mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone, 4-MMC) with associated sympathomimetic toxicity. JMed Toxicol 2010, 6:327-330.
104. Murphy C.M., Dulaney A.R., Beuhler M.C., et al. "Bath Salts" and "Plant Food" products: the experience of one regional US Poison Center. JMed Toxicol 2013, 9:42-48.
105. Nicholson P.J., Quinn M.J., Dodd J.D. Headshop heartache: acute mephedone 'meow' myocarditis. Heart 2010, 96:2051-2052.
106. Wyman J.F., Lavins E.S., Engelhart D., et al. Postmortem tissue distribution of MDPV following lethal intoxication by "Bath Salts". JAnal Toxicol 2013, 37:182-185.
107. Penders T.M., Gestring R.E., Vilensky D.A. Excited delirium following the use of synthetic cathinones (bath salts). Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2012, 34:647-650.
108. Thornton S.L., Gerona R.R., Tomaszewksi C.A. Psychosis from a bath salt product containing flephedrone and MDPV with serum, urine, and product quantification. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:310-313.
109. Stoica M.V., Felthous A.R. Acute psychosis induced by bath salts: a case report with clinical and forensic implications. JForensic Sci 2013, 58:530-533.
110. Murray B.L., Murphy C.M., Beuhler M.C. Death following recreational use of designer drug "Bath Salts" containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:69-75.
111. Olives T.D., Orozco B.S., Stellpflug S.J. Bath salts: the ivory wave of trouble. West J Emerg Med 2012, 13:58-62.
112. Boulanger-Gobeil C., St-Onge M., Laliberté M., et al. Seizures and hyponatremia related to ethcathinone and methylone poisoning. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:59-61.
113. Winstock A., Mitcheson L., Ramsey J., et al. Mephedrone: use, subjective effects and health risk. Addiction 2011, 106:1991-1996.
114. Warrick B.J., Wilson J., Hedge M., et al. Lethal serotonin syndrome after methylone and butylone ingestion. JMed Toxicol 2012, 8:65-68.
115. Levine M., Levitan R., Skolnik A. Compartment syndrome after "Bath Salts" use: a case series. Ann Emerg Med 2012, 61:480-483.
116. Borek H.A., Holstege C.P. Hyperthermia and multiorgan failure after abuse of "Bath Salts" containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone. Ann Emerg Med 2012, 60:103-105.
117. Rosenberg J., Pentel P., Pond S., et al. Hyperthermia associated with drug intoxication. Crit Care Med 1986, 14:964-969.
118. Torrance H., Cooper G. The detection of mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) in 4 fatalities in Scotland. Forensic Sci Int 2010, 202:e62-e63.
119. Carbone P.N., Carbone D.L., Carstairs S.D., et al. Sudden cardiac death associated with methylone use. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2013, 34:26-28.
120. Maskell P.D., De Paoli G., Seneviratne C., et al. Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone)-related deaths. JAnal Toxicol 2011, 35:188-191.
121. Sparago M., Wlos J., Yaun J., et al. Neurotoxic and pharmacologic studies on enantiomers of the N-methylated analog of cathinone (methcathinone): a new drug of abuse. JPharmacol Exp Ther 1996, 279:1043-1052.
122. McCann U.D., Wong D.F., Yokoi F., et al. Reduced striatal dopamine transporter density in the abstinent methamphetamine and methcathinone users: evidence from positron emission tomography studies with [11C]WIN-35,428. JNeurosci 1998, 18:8417-8422.
123. Petrie M., Lynch K.L., Ekins S., et al. Cross-reactivity studies and predictive modeling of "Bath Salts" and other amphetamine-type stimulants with amphetamine screening immunoassays. Clin Toxicol 2013, 51:83-91.
124. Swortwood M.J., Boland D.M., DeCaprio A.P. Determination of 32 cathinone derivatives and other designer drugs in serum by comprehensive LC-QQQ-MS/MS analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013, 405:1383-1397.
125. National Medical Services (NMS) labs. NMS Labs Online Test Catalog. 2013. Available at: Accessed June 18, 2013. http://www.nmslabs.com/test-catalog/bath%20salts@0.
126. Dean B.V., Stellpflug S.L., Burnett A.M., et al. 2C or Not 2C: phenethylamine designer drug review. JMed Toxicol 2013, 9:172-178.
127. Shulgin A.T., Shulgin A. PiHKAL - a chemical love story 1991, Transform Press, Berkley (CA).
128. Benzenhöfer U., Passie T. Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): the role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin. Addiction 2010, 105:1355-1361.
129. Caudevilla-Gálligo F., Riba J., Ventura M., et al. 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B): presence in the recreational drug market in Spain, pattern of use and subjective effects. JPsychopharmacol 2012, 26:1026-1035.
130. de Boer D., Bosman I. Anew trend in drugs-of-abuse; the 2C series of phenethylamine designer drugs. Pharm World Sci 2004, 26:110-113.
131. Giroud C., Augsburger M., Rivier L., et al. 2C-B: a new psychoactive phenethylamine recently discovered in Ecstasy tablets sold on the Swiss black market. JAnal Toxicol 1998, 22:345-354.
132. Sanders B., Lankenau S.E., Bloom J.J., et al. "Research Chemicals": tryptamine and phenethylamine use among high-risk youth. Subst Use Misuse 2008, 43:389-402.
133. Topeff J.M., Ellsworth H., Willhite L.A., et al. Acase series of symptomatic patients, including one fatality, following 2C-E exposure. Clin Toxicol 2011, 49:526.
134. Maurer H.H. Chemistry, pharmacology, and metabolism of emerging drugs of abuse. Ther Drug Monit 2010, 32:544-549.
135. Saez P., Borges Y., Gonzalez E., et al. Alpha-adrenergic and 5-HT2-serotonergic effects of some beta-phenylethylamines on isolated rat thoracic aorta. Gen Pharmacol 1994, 25:211-216.
136. Carmo H., Hengstler J.G., de Boer D., et al. Metabolic pathways of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B): analysis of phase I metabolism withhepatocytes of six species including human. Toxicology 2005, 206:75-89.
137. Theobald D.S., Maurer H.H. Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-β-phenethylamine (2C-D) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JMass Spectrom 2006, 41:1509-1519.
138. Theobald D.S., Maurer H.H. Identification of monoamine oxidase and cytochrome P450 isoenzymes involved in the deamination of phenethylamine-derived designer drugs (2C-series). Biochem Pharmacol 2007, 73:287-297.
139. Ambrose J.B., Bennett H.D., Lee H.S., et al. Cerebral vasculopathy after 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine ingestion. Neurologist 2010, 16:199-202.
140. Bosak A., LoVecchio F., Levine M. Recurrent seizures and serotonin syndrome following "2C-I" ingestion. JMed Toxicol 2013, 9:196-198.
141. Schep L.J., Slaughter R.J., Vale J.A., et al. The clinical toxicology of the designer "party pills" benzylpiperazine and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine. Clin Toxicol 2011, 49:131-141.
142. Staack R.F. Piperazine designer drugs of abuse. Lancet 2007, 369:1411-1413.
143. Davies S., Wood D.M., Smith G., et al. Purchasing 'legal highs' on the Internet - is there consistency in what you get?. QJM 2010, 103:489-493.
144. Wilkins C., Sweetsur P., Girling M. Patterns of benzylpiperazine/trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine party pill use and adverse effects in a population sample in New Zealand. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008, 27:633-639.
145. Gee P., Gilbert M., Richardson S. Toxicity from the recreational use of 1-benzylpiperazine. Clin Toxicol 2008, 46:802-807.
146. Baumann M.H., Clark R.D., Budzynski A.G., et al. Effects of "Legal X" piperazine analogs on dopamine and serotonin release in rat brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004, 1025:189-197.
147. Baumann M.H., Clark R.D., Budzynski A.G., et al. N-substituted piperazines abused by humans mimic the molecular mechanism of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or 'Ecstasy'). Neuropsychopharmacology 2005, 30:550-560.
148. Arbo M.D., Bastos M.L., Carmo H.F. Piperazine compounds as drugs of abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012, 122:174-185.
149. Bye C., Munro-Faure A.D., Peck A.W., et al. Acomparison of the effects of 1-benzylpiperazine and dexamphetamine on human performance tests. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1973, 6:163-169.
150. de Boer D., Bosman I.J., Hidvégi E., et al. Piperazine-like compounds: a new group of designer drugs-of-abuse on the European market. Forensic Sci Int 2001, 121:47-56.
151. Gee P., Jerram T., Bowie D. Multiorgan failure from 1-benyzlpiperazine ingestion - legal high or lethal high?. Clin Toxicol 2010, 48:230-233.
152. Wilkins C., Sweetsur P. Differences in harm from legal BZP/TFMPP party pills between North Island and South Island users in New Zealand: a case of effective industry self-regulation?. Int J Drug Policy 2010, 21:86-90.
153. Wood D.M., Dargan P.I., Button J., et al. Collapse, reported seizure - and an unexpected pill. Lancet 2007, 369:1490.
154. Balmelli C., Kupferschmidt H., Rentsch K., et al. Fatal brain edema after ingestion of ecstasy and benzylpiperazine. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2001, 126:809-811.
155. Elliott S., Smith C. Investigation of the first deaths in the United Kingdom involving the detection and quantification of the piperazines BZP and 3-TFMPP. JAnal Toxicol 2008, 32:172-177.
156. Shellard E.J. Ethnopharmacology of Kratom and the mitragyna alkaloids. JEthnopharmacol 1989, 25:123-124.
157. Boyer E.W., Babu K.M., Macalino G.E., et al. Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal with a dietary supplement, Kratom. Am J Addict 2007, 16:352-356.
158. Thongpradichote S., Matsumoto K., Tohda M., et al. Identification of opioid receptor subtypes in antinociceptive actions of supraspinally-administered mitragynine in mice. Life Sci 1998, 62:1371-1378.
159. Suwanlert S. Astudy of Kratom eaters in Thailand. Bull Narc 1975, 27:21-27.
160. Nelson J.L., Lapoint J., Hodgman M.J., et al. Seizures and coma following Kratom (Mitragynina speciosa Korth) exposure. JMed Toxicol 2010, 6:424-426.
161. Kronstrand R., Roman M., Thelander G., et al. Unintentional fatal intoxications with mitragynine and O-desmethyltramadol from the herbal blend Krypton. JAnal Toxicol 2011, 35:242-247.
162. Kelly B.C. Legally tripping: a qualitative profile of Salvia divinorum use among young adults. JPsychoactive Drugs 2011, 43:46-54.
163. Baggott M.J., Erowid E., Erowid F., et al. Use patterns and self-reported effects of Salvia divinorum: an internet-based survey. Drug Alcohol Depend 2010, 111:250-256.
164. Tsujikawa K., Kuwayama K., Miyaguchi H., et al. Invitro stability and metabolism of Salvinorin A in rat plasma. Xenobiotica 2009, 39:391-398.
165. Rais V., Seefeld A., Cantrell L., et al. Salvia divinorum: exposures reported to a statewide poison control system over 10 years. JEmerg Med 2011, 40:643-650.
166. Przekop P., Lee T. Persistent psychosis associated with Salvia divinorum use. Am J Psychiatry 2009, 166:832.
167. Hatfield G.M., Brady L.R. Toxins of higher fungi. Lloydia 1975, 38:36-55.
168. Curry S.C., Rose M.C. Intravenous mushroom poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 1985, 14:900-902.
169. McClintock R.L., Watts D.J., Melanson S. Unrecognized magic mushroom abuse in a 28-year-old man. Am J Emerg Med 2008, 26:972.e3-972.e4.
170. Hallock R.M., Dean A., Knecht Z.A., et al. Asurvey of hallucinogenic mushroom use, factors related to usage, and perceptions of use among college students. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013, 130:245-248.
171. Klinke H.B., Muller I.B., Steffenrud S., et al. Two cases of lysergamide intoxication by ingestion of seeds from Hawaiian baby woodrose. Forensic Sci Int 2010, 197:e1-e5.
172. Schmidt M.M., Sharma A., Schifano F., et al. "Legal highs" on the net: evaluation of UK-based websites, products and product information. Forensic Sci Int 2011, 206:92-97.
173. Kremer C., Paulke A., Wunder C., et al. Variable adverse effects in subjects after ingestion of equal doses of Argyreia nervosa seeds. Forensic Sci Int 2012, 214:e6-e8.
174. Juszczak G.R., Swiergiel A.H. Recreational use of D-lysergamide from the seeds of Argyreia nervosa, Ipomoea tricolor, Ipomoea violacea, and Ipomoea purpurea in Poland. JPsychoactive Drugs 2013, 45:79-93.
175. Rusyniak D.E., Sprague J.E. Toxin-induced hyperthermic syndromes. Med Clin North Am 2005, 89:1277-1296.