Choline

Present Knowledge in Nutrition: Tenth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 405-418

  Zeisel, Steven H ^a   Corbin, Karen D ^a  

^a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

Author keywords

Acetylcholine (ACh); Brain; Cancer; Cardiovascular disease (CVD); Choline; Choline in human health; Choline Metabolism; Methyltetrahydrofolate (MTHF)

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886973590     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781119946045.ch26     Document Type: Chapter

References (135)

1. Albright, C.D., Friedrich, C.B., Brown, E.C., et al. (1999) Maternal dietary choline availability alters mitosis, apoptosis and the localization of TOAD-64 protein in the developing fetal rat septum. Brain Res 115, 123-129.
2. Albright, C.D., Lui, R., Bethea, T.C., et al. (1996) Choline defi-ciency induces apoptosis in SV40-immortalized CWSV-1 rat hepatocytes in culture. FASEB J 10, 510-516.
3. Albright, C.D., Mar, M.H., Friedrich, C.B., et al. (2001) Maternal choline availability alters the localization of p15Ink4B and p27Kip1 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in the developing fetal rat brain hippocampus. Dev Neurosci 23, 100-106.
4. Albright, C.D., Salganik, R.I., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2003a) Mitochondrial and microsomal derived reactive oxygen species mediate apoptosis induced by transforming growth factor-beta1 in immortalized rat hepatocytes. J Cell Biochem 89, 254-261.
5. Albright, C.D., Siwek, D.F., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2003b) Choline availability during embryonic development alters the localization of calretinin in developing and aging mouse hippocampus. Nutr Neurosci 6, 129-134.
6. Albright, C.D., Tsai, A.Y., Friedrich, C.B., et al. (1999) Choline availability alters embryonic development of the hippocampus and septum in the rat. Brain Res 113, 13-20.
7. Albright, C.D., Tsai, A.Y., Mar, M.-H., et al. (1998) Choline availability modulates the expression of TGF ß 1 and cytoskeletal proteins in the hippocampus of developing rat brain. Neurochem Res 23, 751-758.
8. Bidulescu, A., Chambless, L.E., Siega-Riz, A.M., et al. (2007) Usual choline and betaine dietary intake and incident coronary heart disease: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 7, 20.
9. Blusztajn, J.K. and Wurtman, R.J. (1983) Choline and cholinergic neurons. Science 221, 614-620.
10. Brandon, E.P., Mellott, T., Pizzo, D.P., et al. (2004) Choline transporter 1 maintains cholinergic function in choline acetyltransferase haploinsufficiency. J Neurosci 24, 5459-5466.
11. Bremer, J. and Greenberg, D. (1961) Methyl transferring enzyme system of microsomes in the biosynthesis of lecithin (phosphatidylcholine). Biochim Biophys Acta 46, 205-216.
12. Buchman, A., Dubin, M., Moukarzel, A., et al. (1995) Choline deficiency: a cause of hepatic steatosis during parenteral nutrition that can be reversed with intravenous choline supplementation. Hepatology 22, 1399-1403.
13. Buchman, A.L., Ament, M.E., Sohel, M., et al. (2001) Choline deficiency causes reversible hepatic abnormalities in patients receiving parenteral nutrition: proof of a human choline requirement: a placebo-controlled trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 25, 260-268.
14. Buchman, A.L., Moukarzel, A., Jenden, D.J., et al. (1993) Low plasma free choline is prevalent in patients receiving long term parenteral nutrition and is associated with hepatic aminotransferase abnormalities. Clin Nutr 12, 33-37.
15. Burg, M. (1995) Molecular basis of osmotic regulation. Am J Physiol 268, F983-996.
16. Burt, M.E., Hanin, I., and Brennan, M.F. (1980) Choline defi-ciency associated with total parenteral nutrition. Lancet 2, 638-639.
17. Carmichael, S.L., Yang, W., Correa, A., et al. (2009) Hypospadias and intake of nutrients related to one-carbon metabolism. J Urol 181, 315-321 ; discussion 321.
18. Caudill, M.A. (2010) Pre-and postnatal health: evidence of increased choline needs. J Am Diet Assoc 110, 1198-1206.
19. Cermak, J.M., Blusztajn, J.K., Meck, W.H., et al. (1999) Prenatal availability of choline alters the development of acetylcholinesterase in the rat hippocampus. Dev Neurosci 21, 94-104.
20. Chan, J., Deng, L., Mikael, L.G., et al. (2010) Low dietary choline and low dietary riboflavin during pregnancy influence reproductive outcomes and heart development in mice. Am J Clin Nutr 91, 1035-1043.
21. Chao, C.K., Pomfret, E.A., and Zeisel, S.H. (1988) Uptake of choline by rat mammary-gland epithelial cells. Biochem J 254, 33-38.
22. Chawla, R.K., Wolf, D.C., Kutner, M.H., et al. (1989) Choline may be an essential nutrient in malnourished patients with cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 97, 1514-1520.
23. Cho, E., Zeisel, S.H., Jacques, P., et al. (2006) Dietary choline and betaine assessed by food-frequency questionnaire in relation to plasma total homocysteine concentration in the Framingham Offspring Study. Am J Clin Nutr 83, 905-911.
24. Cohen, B.M., Renshaw, P.F., Stoll, A.L., et al. (1995) Decreased brain choline uptake in older adults. An in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. JAMA 274, 902-907.
25. Conant, R. and Schauss, A.G. (2004) Therapeutic applications of citicoline for stroke and cognitive dysfunction in the elderly: a review of the literature. Altern Med Rev 9, 17-31.
26. Cornford, E.M., Braun, L.D., and Oldendorf, W.H. (1978) Carrier mediated blood-brain barrier transport of choline and certain choline analogs. J Neurochem 30, 299-308.
27. Craciunescu, C.N., Albright, C.D., Mar, M.H., et al. (2003) Choline availability during embryonic development alters progenitor cell mitosis in developing mouse hippocampus. J Nutr 133, 3614-3618.
28. Craig, S.A. (2004) Betaine in human nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 80, 539-549.
29. Da Costa K.A., Badea, M., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2004) Elevated serum creatine phosphokinase in choline-deficient humans: mechanistic studies in C2C12 mouse myoblasts. Am J Clin Nutr 80, 163-170.
30. Da Costa K.A., Gaffney, C.E., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2005) Choline deficiency in mice and humans is associated with increased plasma homocysteine concentration after a methionine load. Am J Clin Nutr 81, 440-444.
31. Da Costa K.A., Garner, S.C., Chang, J., et al. (1995) Effects of prolonged (1 year) choline deficiency and subsequent refeeding of choline on 1,2,-sn-diradylglycerol, fatty acids and protein kinase C in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 16, 327-334.
32. Da Costa K.A., Kozyreva, O.G., Song, J., et al. (2006a) Common genetic polymorphisms affect the human requirement for the nutrient choline. FASEB J 20, 1336-1344.
33. Da Costa K.A., Niculescu, M.D., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2006b) Choline deficiency increases lymphocyte apoptosis and DNA damage in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 84, 88-94.
34. Da Costa K.A., Rai, K.S., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2010) Dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplementation modulates hippocampal development in the Pemt-/-mouse. J Biol Chem 285, 1008-1015.
35. Dani, S., Hori, A., and Walter, G. (eds) (1997) Principles of Neural Aging. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
36. Detopoulou, P., Panagiotakos, D.B., Antonopoulou, S., et al. (2008) Dietary choline and betaine intakes in relation to concentrations of inflammatory markers in healthy adults: the ATTICA study. Am J Clin Nutr 87, 424-430.
37. Dilger, R.N., Garrow, T.A., and Baker, D.H. (2007) Betaine can partially spare choline in chicks but only when added to diets containing a minimal level of choline. J Nutr 137, 2224-2228.
38. Diringer, H. and Koch, M.A. (1973) Biosynthesis of sphingomyelin. Transfer of phosphorylcholine from phosphatidylcholine to erythro-ceramide in a cell-free system. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem 354, 1661-1665.
39. Dolinoy, D.C., Weidman, J.R., and Jirtle, R.L. (2007) Epigenetic gene regulation: linking early developmental environment to adult disease. Reprod Toxicol 23, 297-307.
40. Exton, J.H. (1994) Phosphatidylcholine breakdown and signal transduction. Biochim Biophys Acta 1212, 26-42.
41. Fargnoli, J.L., Fung, T.T., Olenczuk, D.M., et al. (2008) Adherence to healthy eating patterns is associated with higher circulating total and high-molecular-weight adiponectin and lower resistin concentrations in women from the Nurses'Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 88, 1213-1224.
42. Ferguson, S.M., Bazalakova, M., Savchenko, V., et al. (2004) Lethal impairment of cholinergic neurotransmission in hemicholinium-3-sensitive choline transporter knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101, 8762-8767.
43. Finkelstein, J.D. (2000) Pathways and regulation of homocysteine metabolism in mammals. Semin Thromb Hemost 26, 219-225.
44. Fischer, L.M., Da Costa K., Kwock, L., et al. (2007) Sex and menopausal status influence human dietary requirements for the nutrient choline. Am J Clin Nutr 85, 1275-1285.
45. Fischer, L.M., Scearce, J.A., Mar, M.H., et al. (2005) Ad libitum choline intake in healthy individuals meets or exceeds the proposed adequate intake level. J Nutr 135, 826-829.
46. Fisher, M.C., Zeisel, S.H., Mar, M.H., et al. (2001) Inhibitors of choline uptake and metabolism cause developmental abnormalities in neurulating mouse embryos. Teratology 64, 114-122.
47. Fisher, M.C., Zeisel, S.H., Mar, M.H., et al. (2002) Perturbations in choline metabolism cause neural tube defects in mouse embryos in vitro. FASEB J 16, 619-621.
48. Garner, S.C., Mar, M.-H., and Zeisel, S.H. (1995) Choline distribution and metabolism in pregnant rats and fetuses are influenced by the choline content of the maternal diet. J Nutr 125, 2851-2858.
49. Ghoshal, K., Li, X., Datta, J., et al. (2006) A folate-and methyl-deficient diet alters the expression of DNA methyltransferases and methyl CpG binding proteins involved in epigenetic gene silencing in livers of F344 rats. J Nutr 136, 1522-1527.
50. Gregory, J.F., 3rd, Cuskelly, G.J., Shane, B., et al. (2000) Primed, constant infusion with [2H3]serine allows in vivo kinetic measurement of serine turnover, homocysteine remethylation, and transsulfuration processes in human one-carbon metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 72, 1535-1541.
51. Gwee, M.C. and Sim, M.K. (1978) Free choline concentration and cephalin-N-methyltransferase activity in the maternal and foetal liver and placenta of pregnant rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol. Physiol 5, 649-653.
52. Holmes-McNary, M., Cheng, W.L., Mar., M.H., et al. (1996) Choline and choline esters in human and rat milk and infant formulas. Am J Clin Nutr 64, 572-576.
53. Ilcol, Y.O., Ozbek, R., Hamurtekin, E., et al. (2005) Choline status in newborns, infants, children, breast-feeding women, breast-fed infants and human breast milk. J Nutr Biochem 16, 489-499.
54. Institute of Medicine (1998) Choline. In Dietary Reference Intakes for Folate, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline, 1. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp. 390-422
55. Jacob, R., Jenden, D., Okoji, R., et al. (1998) Choline status of men and women is decreased by low dietary folate. FASEB J 12, A512.
56. Jacob, R.A., Jenden, D.J., Allman-Farinelli, M.A., et al. (1999) Folate nutriture alters choline status of women and men fed low choline diets. J Nutr 129, 712-717.
57. Jensen, H.H., Batres-Marquez, S.P., Carriquiry, A., et al. (2007) Choline in the diets of the U.S. population: NHANES, 2003-2004. FASEB J 21, lb219.
58. Jones, J.P., Meck, W., Williams, C.L., et al. (1999) Choline availability to the developing rat fetus alters adult hippocampal long-term potentiation. Brain Res 118, 159-167.
59. Kamphuis, P.J. and Wurtman, R.J. (2009) Nutrition and Alzheimer's disease: pre-clinical concepts. Eur J Neurol 16 (Suppl 1), 12-18.
60. Kim, Y.-I., Miller, J.W., Da Costa K.-A., et al. (1995) Folate deficiency causes secondary depletion of choline and phosphocholine in liver. J Nutr 124, 2197-2203.
61. Kohlmeier, M., Da Costa K.A., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2005) Genetic variation of folate-mediated one-carbon transfer pathway predicts susceptibility to choline deficiency in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102, 16025-16030.
62. Konstantinova, S.V., Tell, G.S., Vollset, S.E., et al. (2008) Dietary patterns, food groups, and nutrients as predictors of plasma choline and betaine in middle-aged and elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 88, 1663-1669.
63. Li, Q., Guo-Ross, S., Lewis, D.V., et al. (2004) Dietary prenatal choline supplementation alters postnatal hippocampal structure and function. J Neurophysiol 91, 1545-1555.
64. Li, Z. and Vance, D.E. (2008) Phosphatidylcholine and choline homeostasis. J Lipid Res 49, 1187-1194.
65. Loy, R., Heyer, D., Williams, C.L., et al. (1991) Choline-induced spatial memory facilitation correlates with altered distribution and morphology of septal neurons. Adv Exp Med Biol 295, 373-382.
66. Markakis, E.A. and Gage, F.H. (1999) Adult-generated neurons in the dentate gyrus send axonal projections to field CA3 and are surrounded by synaptic vesicles. J Comp Neurol 406, 449-460.
67. Meck, W.H. and Williams, C.L. (1999) Choline supplementation during prenatal development reduces proactive interference in spatial memory. Brain Res 118, 51-59.
68. Meck, W.H. and Williams, C.L. (2003) Metabolic imprinting of choline by its availability during gestation: implications for memory and attentional processing across the lifespan. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27, 385-399.
69. Meck, W.H., Smith, R.A., and Williams, C.L. (1988) Pre-and postnatal choline supplementation produces long-term facilitation of spatial memory. Dev Psychobiol 21, 339-353.
70. Mehedint, M.G., Craciunescu, C.N., and Zeisel, S.H. (2010a) Maternal dietary choline deficiency alters angiogenesis in fetal mouse hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107, 12834-12839.
71. Mehedint, M.G., Niculescu, M.D., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2010b) Choline deficiency alters global histone methylation and epigenetic marking at the Re1 site of the calbindin 1 gene. FASEB J 24, 184-195.
72. Merrill, A.H., Jr, Liotta, D.C., and Riley, R.E. (1995) Bioactive properties of sphingosine and structurally related compounds. Handbook Lipid Res 8, 205-237.
73. Michel, V. and Bakovic, M. (2009) The solute carrier 44A1 is a mitochondrial protein and mediates choline transport. FASEB J 23, 2749-2758.
74. Montoya, D.A., White, A.M., Williams, C.L., et al. (2000) Prenatal choline exposure alters hippocampal responsiveness to cholinergic stimulation in adulthood. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 123, 25-32.
75. Moon, J., Chen, M., Gandhy, S.U., et al. (2010) Perinatal choline supplementation improves cognitive functioning and emotion regulation in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome. Behav Neurosci 124, 346-361.
76. Moore, J.B. (2010) Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: the hepatic consequence of obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Proc Nutr Soc 69 (2), 211-220.
77. Newberne, P.M. and Rogers, A.E. (1986) Labile methyl groups and the promotion of cancer. Annu Rev Nutr 6, 407-432.
78. Niculescu, M.D., Craciunescu, C.N., and Zeisel, S.H. (2005) Gene expression profiling of choline-deprived neural precursor cells isolated from mouse brain. Brain Res 134, 309-322.
79. Niculescu, M.D., Craciunescu, C.N., and Zeisel, S.H. (2006) Dietary choline deficiency alters global and gene-specific DNA methylation in the developing hippocampus of mouse fetal brains. FASEB J 20, 43-49.
80. Niculescu, M.D., Da Costa K.A., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2007) Lymphocyte gene expression in subjects fed a low-choline diet differs between those who develop organ dysfunction and those who do not. Am J Clin Nutr 86, 230-239.
81. Niculescu, M.D., Yamamuro, Y., and Zeisel, S.H. (2004) Choline availability modulates human neuroblastoma cell proliferation and alters the methylation of the promoter region of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 3 gene. J Neurochem 89, 1252-1259.
82. Noga, A.A. and Vance, D.E. (2003) A gender-specific role for phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase-derived phosphatidylcholine in the regulation of plasma high density and very low density lipoproteins in mice. J Biol Chem 278, 21851-21859.
83. Noga, A.A., Zhao, Y., and Vance, D.E. (2002) An unexpected requirement for phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase in the secretion of very low density lipoproteins. J Biol Chem 277, 42358-42365.
84. Ong, J.P. and Younossi, Z.M. (2007) Epidemiology and natural history of NAFLD and NASH. Clin Liver Dis 11, 1-16, vii.
85. Ozarda Ilcol, Y., Uncu, G., and Ulus, I.H. (2002) Free and phospholipid-bound choline concentrations in serum during pregnancy, after delivery and in newborns. Arch Physiol Biochem 110, 393-399.
86. Pardridge, W.M. (1986) Blood-brain transport of nutrients. Introduction. Fed Proc 45, 2047-2049.
87. Park, E.I. and Garrow, T.A. (1999) Interaction between dietary methionine and methyl donor intake on rat liver betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase gene expression and organization of the human gene. J Biol Chem 274, 7816-7824.
88. Pogribny, I.P., Tryndyak, V.P., Bagnyukova, T.V., et al. (2009) Hepatic epigenetic phenotype predetermines individual sus-ceptibility to hepatic steatosis in mice fed a lipogenic methyl-deficient diet. J Hepatol 51, 176-186.
89. Pomfret, E.A., Da Costa K., and Zeisel, S.H. (1990) Effects of choline deficiency and methotrexate treatment upon rat liver. J Nutr Biochem 1, 533-541.
90. Pyapali, G., Turner, D., Williams, C., et al. (1998) Prenatal choline supplementation decreases the threshold for induction of long-term potentiation in young adult rats. J. Neurophysiol 79, 1790-1796.
91. Resseguie, M., Song, J., Niculescu, M.D., et al. (2007) Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT) gene expression is induced by estrogen in human and mouse primary hepatocytes. FASEB J 21, 2622-2632.
92. Savendahl, L., Mar, M.-H., Underwood, L., et al. (1997) Prolonged fasting results in diminished plasma choline concentration but does not cause liver dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr 66, 622-625.
93. Selhub, J., Seyoum, E., Pomfret, E.A., et al. (1991) Effects of choline deficiency and methotrexate treatment upon liver folate content and distribution. Cancer Res 51, 16-21.
94. Seress, L., Abraham, H., Tornoczky, T., et al. (2001) Cell formation in the human hippocampal formation from mid-gestation to the late postnatal period. Neuroscience 105, 831-843.
95. Sha, W., Da Costa K.A., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2010) Metabolomic profiling can predict which humans will develop liver dysfunction when deprived of dietary choline. FASEB J 24, 2962-2975.
96. Shaw, G.M., Carmichael, S.L., Laurent, C., et al. (2006) Maternal nutrient intakes and risk of orofacial clefts. Epidemiology 17, 285-291.
97. Shaw, G.M., Carmichael, S.L., Yang, W., et al. (2004) Periconceptional dietary intake of choline and betaine and neural tube defects in offspring. Am J Epidemiol 160, 102-109.
98. Shaw, G.M., Finnell, R.H., Blom, H.J., et al. (2009) Choline and risk of neural tube defects in a folate-fortified population. Epidemiology 20, 714-719.
99. Sheard, N.F., Tayek, J.A., Bistrian, B.R., et al. (1986) Plasma choline concentration in humans fed parenterally. Am J Clin Nutr 43, 219-224.
100. Shin, W., Yan, J., Abratte, C.M., et al. (2010) Choline intake exceeding current dietary recommendations preserves markers of cellular methylation in a genetic subgroup of folate-compromised men. J Nutr 140, 975-980.
101. Song, J., Da Costa K.A., Fischer, L.M., et al. (2005) Polymorphism of the PEMT gene and susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). FASEB J 19, 1266-1271.
102. Sweiry, J.H., Page, K.R., Dacke, C.G., et al. (1986) Evidence of saturable uptake mechanisms at maternal and fetal sides of the perfused human placenta by rapid paired-tracer dilution: studies with calcium and choline. J Dev Physiol 8, 435-445.
103. Teodoro, J.S., Rolo, A.P., Duarte, F.V., et al. (2008) Differential alterations in mitochondrial function induced by a choline-deficient diet: understanding fatty liver disease progression. Mitochondrion 8, 367-376.
104. Thomas, J.D., Biane, J.S., O'Bryan, K.A., et al. (2007) Choline supplementation following third-trimester-equivalent alcohol exposure attenuates behavioral alterations in rats. Behav Neurosci 121, 120-130.
105. van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., and Gage, F.H. (1999) Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus [see comments ]. Nat Neurosci 2, 266-270.
106. Vance, D.E., Walkey, C.J., and Cui, Z. (1997) Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase from liver. Biochim Biophys Acta 1348, 142-150.
107. Varela-Moreiras, G., Selhub, J., Da Costa K., et al. (1992) Effect of chronic choline deficiency in rats on liver folate content and distribution. J Nutr Biochem 3, 519-522.
108. Vickroy, T.W., Roeske, W.R., and Yamamura, H.I. (1984) Sodiumdependent high-affinity binding of [3H]hemicholinium-3 in the rat brain: a potentially selective marker for presynaptic cholinergic sites. Life Sci 35, 2335-2343.
109. Vrablic, A.S., Albright, C.D., Craciunescu, C.N., et al. (2001) Altered mitochondrial function and overgeneration of reactive oxygen species precede the induction of apoptosis by 1-O-octadecyl-2-methyl-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine in p53-defective e hepatocytes. F ASEB J 15, 1739-1744.
110. Wang, Z., Klipfell, E., Bennett, et al. (2011) Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature 472, 57-63.
111. Watkins, S.M., Zhu, X., and Zeisel, S.H. (2003) Phosphatidylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase activity and dietary choline regulate liver-plasma lipid flux and essential fatty acid metabolism in mice. J Nutr 133, 3386-3391.
112. Williams, C.L., Meck, W.H., Heyer, D.D., et al. (1998) Hypertrophy of basal forebrain neurons and enhanced visuospatial memory in perinatally choline-supplemented rats. Brain Res 794, 225-238.
113. Wong-Goodrich, S.J., Glenn, M.J., Mellott, T.J., et al. (2008) Spatial memory and hippocampal plasticity are differentially sensitive to the availability of choline in adulthood as a function of choline supply in utero. Brain Res 1237, 153-166.
114. Xu, X., Gammon, M.D., Zeisel, S.H., et al. (2008) Choline metabolism and risk of breast cancer in a population-based study. FASEB J 22, 2045-2052.
115. Xu, X., Gammon, M.D., Zeisel, S.H., et al. (2009) High intakes of choline and betaine reduce breast cancer mortality in a population-based study. FASEB J 23, 4022-4028.
116. Yang, E.K., Blusztajn, J.K., Pomfret, E.A., et al. (1988) Rat and human mammary tissue can synthesize choline moiety via the methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine. Biochem. J 256, 821-828.
117. Yang, W., Shaw, G.M., Carmichael, S.L., et al. (2008) Nutrient intakes in women and congenital diaphragmatic hernia in their offspring. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 82, 131-138.
118. Yen, C.L., Mar, M.H., and Zeisel, S.H. (1999) Choline deficiency-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells is associated with diminished membrane phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, accumulation of ceramide and diacylglycerol, and activation of a caspase. FASEB J 13, 135-142.
119. Yuan, Z., Wagner, L., Poloumienko, A., et al. (2004) Identification and expression of a mouse muscle-specific CTL1 gene. Gene 341, 305-312.
120. Zeisel, S.H. (2006a) Choline: critical role during fetal development and dietary requirements in adults. Annu Rev Nutr 26, 229-250.
121. Zeisel, S.H. (2006b) The fetal origins of memory: the role of dietary choline in optimal brain development. J Pediatr 149 (5 Suppl), S131-136.
122. Zeisel, S.H. (2009) Epigenetic mechanisms for nutrition determinants of later health outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr 89, 1488S-1493S.
123. Zeisel, S.H. and Blusztajn, J.K. (1994) Choline and human nutrition. Annu Rev Nutr 14, 269-296.
124. Zeisel, S.H. and Wurtman, R.J. (1981) Developmental changes in rat blood choline concentration. Biochem J 198, 565-570.
125. Zeisel, S.H., Albright, C.D., Shin, O.-K., et al. (1997) Choline deficiency selects for resistance to p53-independent apoptosis and causes tumorigenic transformation of rat hepatocytes. Carcinogenesis 18, 731-738.
126. Zeisel, S.H., Char, D., and Sheard, N.F. (1986) Choline, phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in human and bovine milk and infant formulas. J Nutr 116, 50-58.
127. Zeisel, S.H., daCosta, K.-A., Franklin, P.D., et al. (1991) Choline, an essential nutrient for humans. FASEB J 5, 2093-2098.
128. Zeisel, S.H., Epstein, M.F., and Wurtman, R.J. (1980a) Elevated choline concentration in neonatal plasma. Life Sci 26, 1827-1831.
129. Zeisel, S.H., Growdon, R.J., Wurtman, J.H., et al. (1980b) Normal plasma choline responses to ingested lecithin. Neurology 30, 1226-1229.
130. Zeisel, S.H., Mar, M.H., Howe, J.C., et al. (2003a) Concentrations of choline-containing compounds and betaine in common foods. J Nutr 133, 1302-1307.
131. Zeisel, S.H., Mar, M.-H., Howe, J.C., et al. (2003b) Erratum: Concentrations of choline-containing compounds and betaine in common foods. J Nutr 133, 2918-2919.
132. Zeisel, S.H., Mar, M.-H., Zhou, Z.-W., et al. (1995) Pregnancy and lactation are associated with diminished concentrations of choline and its metabolites in rat live r. J Nutr 125, 3049-3054.
133. Zeisel, S.H., Story, D.L., Wurtman, R.J., et al. (1980c) Uptake of free choline by isolated perfused rat live r. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77, 4417-4419.
134. Zeisel, S.H., Zola, T., da Costa, K., et al. (1989) Effect of choline deficiency on S-adenosylmethionine and methionine concentrations in rat live r. Biochem J 259, 725-729.
135. Zhu, X., Song, J., Mar, M.H., et al. (2003) Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT) knockout mice have hepatic steatosis and abnormal hepatic choline metabolite concentrations despite ingesting a recommended dietary intake of choline. Biochem J 370, 987-993.