Does communicating disappointment in negotiations help or hurt? Solving an apparent inconsistency in the social-functional approach to emotions

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 105, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 605-620

  Lelieveld, Gert Jan ^a   Van Dijk, Eric ^a   Van Beest, Ilja ^b   Van Kleef, Gerben A ^c  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b TILBURG UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Disappointment; Group membership; Interpersonal effects of emotions; Negotiations; Representative bargaining

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ANGER; ARTICLE; EMOTION; FEAR; FEMALE; GUILT; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; MALE; METHODOLOGY; NETHERLANDS; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; YOUNG ADULT;

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ANGER; COMMUNICATION; EMOTIONS; FEAR; FEMALE; GUILT; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; NEGOTIATING; NETHERLANDS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84884254369     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0033345     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Adelberg, S., & Batson, C. D. (1978). Accountability and helping: When needs exceed resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 343-350. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.4.343
2. Avenanti, A., Sirigu, A., & Aglioti, S. M. (2010). Racial bias reduces empathic sensorimotor resonance with other-race pain. Current Biology, 20, 1018-1022. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.03.071
3. Bacharach, S. B., & Lawler, E. J. (1981). Bargaining: Power, tactics, and outcomes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
4. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
5. Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644-675. doi:10.2307/3094912
6. Baumeister, R. F., Reis, H. T., & Delespaul, P. A. E. G. (1995). Subjective and experiential correlates of guilt in daily life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1256-1268. doi:10.1177/01461672952112002
7. Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 243-267. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243
8. Bell, D. E. (1985). Disappointment in decision making under uncertainty. Operations Research, 33, 1-27. doi:10.1287/opre.33.1.1
9. Benton, A. A., & Druckman, D. (1974). Constituent's bargaining orientation and intergroup negotiations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 4, 141-150. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1974.tb00664.x
10. Bono, J. E., & Ilies, R. (2006). Charisma, positive emotions, and mood contagion. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 317-334. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.008
11. Brewer, M. B., & Kramer, R. M. (1986). Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size and decision framing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 543-549. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.543
12. Camerer, C., & Thaler, R. H. (1995). Anomalies: Ultimatums, dictators and manners. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9, 209-219. doi:10.1257/jep.9.2.209
13. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19-35. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.19
14. Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G., & Saxe, R. R. (2011). Us and them: Intergroup failures of empathy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 149-153. doi:10.1177/0963721411408713
15. Clark, M. S., & Brissette, I. (2003). Two types of relationship closeness and their influence on people's emotional lives. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 824-835). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
16. Clark, M. S., Pataki, S. P., & Carver, V. H. (1996). Some thoughts and findings on self-presentation of emotions in relationships. In G. J. O. Fletcher & J. Fitness (Eds.), Knowledge structures in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 247-274). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
17. De Dreu, C. K. W. (1995). Coercive power and concession making in bilateral negotiation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39, 646-670. doi: 10.1177/0022002795039004003
18. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Validzic, A., Matoka, A., Johnson, B., & Frazier, S. (1997). Extending the benefits of recategorization: Evaluations, self-disclosure, and helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 401-420. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1327
19. Druckman, D. (1994). Determinants of compromising behavior in negotiation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 38, 507-556. doi:10.1177/0022002794038003007
20. Druckman, D., Solomon, D., & Zechmeister, K. (1972). Effects of representative role obligations on the process of children's distribution of resources. Sociometry, 35, 387-410. doi:10.2307/2786502
21. Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 665-697. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665
22. Elfenbein, H. A. (2007). Emotion in organizations: A review and theoretical integration. Academy of Management Annals, 1, 315-386. doi: 10.1080/078559812
23. Ferguson, T. J., Olthof, T., & Stegge, H. (1997). Temporal dynamics of guilt: Changes in the role of interpersonal and intrapsychic factors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 659-673. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199711/12)27:6659::AID-EJSP8373.0.CO;2-K
24. Filipowicz, A., Barsade, S., & Melwani, S. (2011). Understanding emotional transitions: The interpersonal consequences of changing emotions in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 541-556. doi:10.1037/a0023545
25. Fisher, J. D., & Nadler, A. (1974). Effect of similarity between donor and recipient on recipients' reactions to aid. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 4, 230-243. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1974.tb02643.x
26. Folmer, C. P. R., Klapwijk, A., De Cremer, D., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2012). One for all: What representing a group may do to us. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1047-1056. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.04.009
27. Forsythe, R., Horowitz, J. L., Savin, N. E., & Sefton, M. (1994). Fairness in simple bargaining experiments. Games and Economic Behavior, 6, 347-369. doi:10.1006/game.1994.1021
28. Frieze, I. H., & Boneva, B. S. (2001). Power motivation and motivation to help others. In A. Y. Lee-Chai & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The use and abuse of power (pp. 75-92). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
29. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
30. Gardner, W. L., & Seeley, E. A. (2001). Confucius, "Jen," and the benevolent use of power: The interdependent self as a psychological contract preventing exploitation. In A. Y. Lee-Chai & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The use and abuse of power (pp. 263-280). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
31. Giner-Sorolla, R., & Espinosa, P. (2011). Social cuing of guilt by anger and of shame by disgust. Psychological Science, 22, 49-53. doi:10.1177/0956797610392925
32. Greenberg, J. (1978). Effects of reward value and retaliatory power on allocation decisions: Justice, generosity or greed. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 367-379. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.4.367
33. Gruder, C. L., & Rosen, N. (1971). Effects of intergroup relations on intergroup bargaining. International Journal of Group Tensions, 1, 301-317.
34. Güth, W., & Huck, S. (1997). From ultimatum bargaining to dictatorship- An experimental study of four games varying in veto power. Metroeconomica, 48, 262-299. doi:10.1111/1467-999X.00033
35. Güth, W., Schmittberger, R., & Schwarze, B. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum games. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388. doi:10.1016/0167-2681(82)90011-7
36. Handgraaf, M. J. J., Van Dijk, E., Vermunt, R. C., Wilke, H. A. M., & De Dreu, C. K. (2008). Less power or powerless? Egocentric empathy gaps and the irony of having little versus no power in social decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1136-1149. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1136
37. Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). On the relationship of anterior brain activity and anger: Examining the role of attitude toward anger. Cognition & Emotion, 18, 337-361. doi:10.1080/02699930341000059
38. Kagel, J. H., Kim, C., & Moser, D. (1996). Fairness in ultimatum games with asymmetric information and asymmetric payoffs. Games and Economic Behavior, 13, 100-110. doi:10.1006/game.1996.0026
39. Karasawa, K. (2001). Anger vs guilt inference of responsibility attribution and interpersonal reactions. Psychological Reports, 89, 731-739.
40. Keenan, P. A., & Carnevale, P. J. (1989). Positive effects of within-group cooperation on between-group negotiation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 977-992. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1989.tb01233.x
41. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (1999). Social functions of emotions at four levels of analysis. Cognition & Emotion, 13, 505-521. doi:10.1080/026999399379168
42. Ketelaar, T., & Au, W. T. (2003). The effects of feelings of guilt on the behavior of uncooperative individuals in repeated social bargaining games: An affect-as-information interpretation of the role of emotion in social interaction. Cognition & Emotion, 17, 429-453. doi:10.1080/02699930143000662
43. Knutson, B. (1996). Facial expressions of emotion influence interpersonal trait inferences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20, 165-182. doi: 10.1007/BF02281954
44. Komorita, S. S., & Brenner, A. R. (1968). Bargaining and concession making under bilateral monopoly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 15-20. doi:10.1037/h0025700
45. Kramer, R. M. (1991). The more the merrier? Social psychological aspects of multiparty negotiations in organizations. Research on Negotiation in Organizations, 3, 307-332.
46. Kravitz, D., & Gunto, S. (1992). Decisions and recipients in ultimatum bargaining games. Journal of Socio-Economics, 21, 65-84. doi:10.1016/1053-5357(92)90026-4
47. Lawler, E. J. (2002). Micro social orders. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65, 4-17. doi:10.2307/3090165
48. Lee, F., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Is it lonely at the top?: The independence and interdependence of power holders. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 43-91. doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23003-2
49. Leith, K. P., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Empathy, shame, guilt, and narratives of interpersonal conflicts: Guilt-prone people are better at perspective taking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1-37.
50. Lelieveld, G.-J., Van Dijk, E., Güroǧlu, B., Van Beest, I., Van Kleef, G. A., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Crone, E. A. (2013). Behavioral and neural reactions to emotions of others in the distribution of resources. Social Neuroscience, 8, 52-62. doi:10.1080/17470919.2012.735621
51. Lelieveld, G.-J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 635-641. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015
52. Lelieveld, G.-J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2012). Why anger and disappointment affect other's bargaining behavior differently: The moderating role of power and the mediating role of reciprocal and complementary emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1209-1221. doi:10.1177/0146167212446938
53. Levine, M., Prosser, A., Evans, D., & Reicher, S. (2005). Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shapes helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 443-453. doi:10.1177/0146167204271651
54. Lewis, M. (2000). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 623-636). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
55. Mallett, R. K., & Swim, J. K. (2007). The influence of inequality, responsibility and justifiability on reports of group-based guilt for ingroup privilege. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10, 57-69. doi: 10.1177/1368430207071341
56. Markovsky, B., Willer, D., & Patton, T. (1988). Power relations in exchange networks. American Sociological Review, 53, 220-236. doi: 10.2307/2095689
57. Molm, L. D. (1985). Relative effects of individual dependencies: Further tests of the relation between power imbalance and power use. Social Forces, 63, 810-837.
58. Morris, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2000). How emotions work: An analysis of the social functions of emotional expression in negotiations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 1-50. doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(00)22002-9
59. Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852-863. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.852
60. Omoto, A. M., & Snyder, M. (2002). Considerations of community: The context and process of volunteerism. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 846-867. doi:10.1177/0002764202045005007
61. Parkinson, B. (1996). Emotions are social. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 663-683. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1996.tb02615.x
62. Pillutla, M. M., & Murnighan, J. K. (1995). Being fair or appearing fair: Strategic behavior in ultimatum bargaining. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1408-1426. doi:10.2307/256863
63. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731. doi:10.3758/BF03206553
64. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
65. Pruitt, D. G. (1981). Negotiation behavior. New York, NY: Academic Press.
66. Pruitt, D. G., & Carnevale, P. J. (1993). Negotiation in social conflict. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
67. Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. I. (1991). Emotional contrast strategies as means of social influence: Lessons from criminal interrogators and bill collectors. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 749-775. doi:10.2307/256388
68. Roseman, I. J., Antoniou, A. A., & Jose, P. E. (1996). Appraisal determinants of emotions: Constructing a more accurate and comprehensive theory. Cognition & Emotion, 10, 241-278. doi:10.1080/026999396380240
69. Rothbart, M., & Hallmark, W. (1988). In-group- out-group differences in the perceived efficacy of coercion and conciliation in resolving social conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 248-257. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.2.248
70. Sinaceur, M., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2006). Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 314-322. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.05.002
71. Smith, R. H., Webster, J. M., Parrott, W. G., & Eyre, H. L. (2002). The role of public exposure in moral and nonmoral shame and guilt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 138-159. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.138
72. Suleiman, R. (1996). Expectations and fairness in a modified ultimatum game. Journal of Economic Psychology, 17, 531-554. doi:10.1016/S0167-4870(96)00029-3
73. Tajfel, H. (1978). Social categorization, social identity and social comparison. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 61-76). London, England: Academic Press.
74. Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149-178. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
75. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S. Worchel & L. W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
76. Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
77. Thompson, L. L., Valley, K. L., & Kramer, R. M. (1995). The bittersweet feeling of success: An examination of social perception in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 467-492. doi:10.1006/jesp.1995.1021
78. Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: The effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 86-94. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86
79. Timmers, M., Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1998). Gender differences in motives for regulating emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 974-985. doi:10.1177/0146167298249005
80. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicer, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
81. Van Beest, I., Van Kleef, G. A., & Van Dijk, E. (2008). Get angry, get out: The interpersonal effects of anger communication in multiparty negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 993-1002. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.02.008
82. Van Dijk, E., Van Kleef, G. A., Steinel, W., & Van Beest, I. (2008). A social functional approach to emotions in bargaining: When communicating anger pays and when it backfires. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 600-614. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.600
83. Van Dijk, E., & Vermunt, R. (2000). Strategy and fairness in social decision making: Sometimes it pays to be powerless. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 1-25. doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1392
84. Van Dijk, W. W., & Van Der Pligt, J. (1997). The impact of probability and magnitude of outcome on disappointment and elation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 277-284. doi:10.1006/obhd.1997.2688
85. Van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. Cognition & Emotion, 16, 787-807. doi:10.1080/02699930143000563
86. Van Kleef, G. A. (2009). How emotions regulate social life: The emotions as social information (EASI) model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 184-188. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01633.x
87. Van Kleef, G. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2010). Longer-term consequences of anger expression in negotiation: Retaliation or spill-over. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 753-760. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.03.013
88. Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004a). The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57-76. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.57
89. Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004b). The interpersonal effects of emotions in negotiations: A motivated information processing approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 510-528. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.510
90. Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2006). Supplication and appeasement in conflict and negotiation: The interpersonal effects of disappointment, worry, guilt, and regret. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 124-142. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.124
91. Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2010). An interpersonal approach to emotion in social decision making: The emotions as social information model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 45-96. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(10)42002-X
92. Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., Beersma, B., Van Knippenberg, D., Van Knippenberg, B., & Damen, F. (2009). Searing sentiment or cold calculation? The effects of leader emotional displays on team performance depend on follower epistemic motivation. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 562-580. doi:10.5465/AMJ.2009.41331253
93. Van Kleef, G. A., Steinel, W., & Homan, A. C. (2013). On being peripheral and paying attention: Social information processing in intergroup conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 63-79. doi:10.1037/a0030988
94. Van Kleef, G. A., Steinel, W., Van Knippenberg, D., Hogg, M. A., & Svensson, A. (2007). Group member prototypicality and intergroup negotiation: How one's standing in the group affects negotiation behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 129-152. doi:10.1348/014466605X89353
95. Van Kleef, G. A., Van Doorn, E. A., Heerdink, M. W., & Koning, L. F. (2011). Emotion is for influence. European Review of Social Psychology, 22, 114-163. doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.627192
96. Van Kleef, G. A., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2008). What other's disappointment may do to selfish people: Emotion and social value orientation in a negotiation context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1084-1095. doi:10.1177/0146167208318402
97. Wall, J. A., Jr. (1975). Effects of constituents' trust and representative bargaining orientation on intergroup bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1004-1012. doi:10.1037/h0076951
98. Wall, J. A., Jr. (1991). Impression management in negotiations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Applied impression management: How image-making affects managerial decisions (pp. 133-156). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
99. Wubben, M. J. J., De Cremer, D., & Van Dijk, E. (2009). How emotion communication guides reciprocity: Establishing cooperation through disappointment and anger. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 987-990. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.010
100. Yoo, S. H., Clark, M. S., Lemay, E. P., Salovey, P., & Monin, J. K. (2011). Responding to partners' expression of anger: The role of communal motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 229-241. doi:10.1177/0146167210394205
101. Yukl, G. (1974). Effects of the opponent's initial offer, concession magnitude, and concession frequency on bargaining behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 323-335. doi:10.1037/h0036895
102. Zeelenberg, M., Van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & Van Der Pligt, J. (1998). The experience of regret and disappointment. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 221-230. doi:10.1080/026999398379727