Syringomyelia: A review of the biomechanics

Journal of Fluids and Structures

Volumn 40, Issue , 2013, Pages 1-24

  Elliott, N S J ^a   Bertram, C D ^b   Martin, B A ^c   Brodbelt, A R ^d  

^a CURTIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF AKRON   (United States)

^d THE WALTON CENTRE NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cerebrospinal fluid; Chiari malformation; Fluid structure interaction; Spinal arachnoiditis; Spinal cord; Wave propagation

Indexed keywords

CEREBRO SPINAL FLUIDS; CHIARI MALFORMATIONS; FLUID-FILLED CAVITY; NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS; PERIODIC EXCITATIONS; PRESSURE WAVE PROPAGATION; SPINAL ARACHNOIDITIS; SPINAL CORDS;

BRAIN; WAVE PROPAGATION;

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID;

EID: 84879843648     PISSN: 08899746     EISSN: 10958622     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2013.01.010     Document Type: Article

References (209)

1. Ball M.J., Dayan A.D. Pathogenesis of syringomyelia. The Lancet 1972, 2:799-801.
2. Barnett H.J.M. Syringomyelia associated with spinal arachnoiditis. Syringomyelia 1973, 220-244. W. B. Saunders, London. H.J.M. Barnett, J.B. Foster, P. Hudgson (Eds.).
3. Barshes N., Demopoulos A., Engelhard H.H. Anatomy and physiology of the leptomeninges and CSF space. Leptomeningeal Metastases 2005, 1-16. Springer Science+Business Media, Inc, New York. L.E. Abrey, M.C. Chamberlain, H.H. Engelhard (Eds.).
4. Bastian H.C. On a case of concussion-lesion with extensive secondary degeneration of the spinal cord, followed by general muscular atrophy. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions 1867, 50:499-542.
5. Bateman G.A. The role of altered impedance in the pathophysiology of normal pressure hydrocephalus, Alzheimer's disease and syringomyelia. Medical Hypotheses 2004, 63:980-985.
6. Bateman G.A. The correlations between a proposed pathogenesis of syringomyelia and normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurosurgical Review 2010, 33:505-506.
7. Battal B., Kocaoglu M., Bulakbasi N., Husmen G., Tuba Sanal H., Tayfun C. Cerebrospinal fluid flow imaging by using phase-contrast MR technique. The British Journal of Radiology 2011, 84:758-765.
8. Batzdorf U., Klekamp J., Johnson J.P. A critical appraisal of syrinx cavity shunting procedures. Journal of Neurosurgery 1998, 89:382-388.
9. Berkouk K., Carpenter P.W., Lucey A.D. Pressure wave propagation in fluid-filled co-axial elastic tubes. Part 1: basic theory. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2003, 125:852-856.
10. Bertram C.D. A numerical investigation of waves propagating in the spinal cord and subarachnoid space in the presence of a syrinx. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2009, 25:1189-1205.
11. Bertram C.D. Evaluation by fluid/structure-interaction spinal-cord simulation of the effects of subarachnoid-space stenosis on an adjacent syrinx. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2010, 132. 061009-061001-061015.
12. Bertram C.D., Bilston L.E., Stoodley M.A. Tensile radial stress in the spinal cord related to arachnoiditis or tethering: a numerical model. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 2008, 46:701-707.
13. Bertram C.D., Brodbelt A.R., Stoodley M.A. The origins of syringomyelia: numerical models of fluid/structure interactions in the spinal cord. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2005, 127:1099-1109.
14. Beulen B.W.A.M.M., Rutten M.C.M., van de Vosse F.N. A time-periodic approach for fluid-structure interaction in distensible vessels. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2009, 25:954-966.
15. Bilston L.E., Fletcher D.F., Brodbelt A.R., Stoodley M.A. Arterial pulsation-driven cerebrospinal fluid motion in the perivascular space: a computational model. Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering 2003, 6:235-241.
16. Bilston L.E., Fletcher D.F., Stoodley M.A. Focal spinal arachnoiditis increases subarachnoid space pressure: a computational study. Clinical Biomechanics 2006, 21:579-584.
17. Bilston L.E., Fletcher D.F., Stoodley M.A. Effect of phase differences between cardiac and CSF pulse on perivascular flow-a computational model with relevance to syringomyelia. British Journal of Neurosurgery 2007, 21:430.
18. Bilston L.E., Stoodley M.A., Fletcher D.F. The influence of the relative timing of arterial and subarachnoid space pulse waves on spinal perivascular cerebrospinal fluid flow as a possible factor in syrinx developments. Journal of Neurosurgery 2010, 112:808-813.
19. Bilston L.E., Thibault L.E. The mechanical properties of the human cervical spinal cord in vitro. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 1996, 24:67-74.
20. Bloomfield I.G., Johnson I.H., Bilston L.E. Effects of proteins, blood cells and glucose on the viscosity of cerebrospinal fluid. Pediatric Neurosurgery 1998, 28:246-251.
21. Boman K., Iivanainen M. Prognosis of syringomyelia. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1967, 43:61-68.
22. Bradbury, M., 1993. Anatomy and physiology of CSF. In: Hydrocephalus. Oxford University Press, pp. 19-47.
23. Brewis M., Poskanzer D.C., Rolland C., Miller H. Neurological disease in an English city. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1966, 42:1-89.
24. Brodbelt A., Stoodley M. CSF pathways: a review. British Journal of Neurosurgery 2007, 21:510-520.
25. Brodbelt A., Stoodley M., Watling A., Tu J., Jones N. Fluid flow in an animal model of post-traumatic syringomyelia. European Spine Journal 2003, 12:300-306.
26. Brodbelt A.R., Stoodley M.A. Post-traumatic syringomyelia: a review. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 2003, 10:401-408.
27. Brodbelt A.R., Stoodley M.A., Watling A.M., Rogan C., Tu J., Brown C.J., Burke S., Jones N.R. The role of excitotoxic injury in post-traumatic syringomyelia. Journal of Neurotrauma 2003, 20:883-893.
28. Brodbelt A.R., Stoodley M.A., Watling A.M., Tu J., Burke S., Jones N.R. Altered subarachnoid space compliance and fluid flow in an animal model of posttraumatic syringomyelia. Spine 2003, 28:E413-E419.
29. Brugières P., Idy-Peretti I., Iffenecker C., Parker F., Jolivet O., Hurth M., Gaston A., Bittoun J. CSF flow measurement in syringomyelia. American Journal of Neuroradiology 2000, 21:1785-1792.
30. Brunner, J.C., 1700. Hydrocephalo, sire hydrope capitis. In: Bonneti, T. (Ed.), Sepulchretum, Miscell. Nat. Curios. III Dec. Ann. I 1688, Ed II, Lib I ed. Cramer & Perachon, Genf, p. 394.
31. Bunck A.C., Kröger J.-R., Jüttner A., Brentrup A., Fiedler B., Schaarschmidt F., Crelier G.R., Schwindt W., Heindel W., Niederstadt T., Maintz D. Magnetic resonance 4D flow characteristics of cerebrospinal fluid at the craniocervical junction and the cervical spinal canal. European Radiology 2011, 21:1788-1796.
32. Carpenter P.W., Berkouk K., Lucey A.D. A theoretical model of pressure wave propagation in the human spinal CSF system. Engineering Mechanics 1999, 6:213-228.
33. Carpenter P.W., Berkouk K., Lucey A.D. Pressure wave propagation in fluid-filled co-axial elastic tubes. Part 2: mechanisms for the pathogenesis of syringomyelia. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2003, 125:857-863.
34. Chang G.L., Hung T.K. An in-vivo measurement and analysis of viscoelastic properties of the spinal cord of cats. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 1988, 110:115-122.
35. Chang G.L., Hung T.K., Bleyaert A., Jannetta P.J. Stress-strain measurement of the spinal cord of puppies and their neurological evaluation. Journal of Trauma 1981, 21:807-810.
36. Chang H.S., Nakagawa H. Hypothesis on the pathophysiology of syringomyelia based on simulation of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2003, 74:344-347.
37. Chang H.S., Nakagawa H. Theoretical analysis of the pathophysiology of syringomyelia associated with adhesive arachnoiditis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2004, 75:754-757.
38. Charcot J.M., Joffroy A. Deux cas d'atrophie musculaire progressive avec lésions de la substance grise et des faisceaux antérolatéraux de la moelle épinière. Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique 1869, 2:354-367.
39. Chouly F., Van Hirtum A., Lagrée P.-Y., Pelorson X., Payan Y. Numerical and experimental study of expiratory flow in the case of major upper airway obstructions with fluid-structure interaction. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2008, 24:250-269.
40. Cirovic S. A coaxial tube model of the cerebrospinal fluid pulse propagation in the spinal column. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2009, 131. 021008-021001-021009.
41. Cirovic S., Kim M. A one-dimensional model of the spinal cerebrospinal-fluid compartment. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2012, 134. 021005-021001-021010.
42. Clausen J.R., Reasor D.A., Aidun C.K. The rheology and microstructure of concentrated non-colloidal suspensions of deformable capsules. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 2011, 685:202-234.
43. Cloyd M.W., Low F.N. Scanning electron microscopy of the subarachnoid space in the dog. I. Spinal cord levels. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1974, 153:325-367.
44. Crossman A., Neary D. Neuroanatomy: An Illustrated Colour Text 2001, Churchill Livingstone.
45. Davis C.H.G., Symon L. Mechanisms and treatment in post-traumatic syringomyelia. British Journal of Neurosurgery 1989, 3:669-674.
46. Do-Dai D.D., Brooks M.K., Goldkamp A., Erbay S., Bhadelia R.A. Magnetic resonance imaging of intramedullary spinal cord lesions: a pictorial review. Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology 2010, 39:160-185.
47. Edgar R., Quail P. Progressive post-traumatic cystic and non-cystic myelopathy. British Journal of Neurosurgery 1994, 8:7-22.
48. Ellertsson A.B., Greitz T. The distending force in the production of communicating syringomyelia. The Lancet 1970, 1:1234.
49. Elliott N.S.J. Syrinx fluid transport: modeling pressure-wave-induced flux across the spinal pial membrane. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2012, 134. 031006-031001-031009.
50. Elliott N.S.J., Lockerby D.A., Brodbelt A.R. The pathogenesis of syringomyelia: a re-evaluation of the elastic-jump hypothesis. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2009, 131. 044503-044501-044506.
51. Elliott N.S.J., Lockerby D.A., Brodbelt A.R. A lumped-parameter model of the cerebrospinal system for investigating arterial-driven flow in posttraumatic syringomyelia. Medical Engineering & Physics 2011, 33:874-882.
52. England M.A., Wakeley J.W. Color Atlas of the Brain and Spinal Cord: An Introduction to Normal Neuroanatomy 2006, Mosby.
53. Enomoto H., Shibata T., Ito A., Harada T., Satake T. Multiple hemangioblastomas accompanied by syringomyelia in the cerebellum and the spinal cord. Surgical Neurology 1984, 22:197-203.
54. European Commission, 2004. Useful information on rare diseases from an EU perspective, Meeting of the Network of Competent Authorities for Health Information and Knowledge. European Commission, Luxembourg.
55. Fehlings M.G., Austin J.W. Editorial: Posttraumatic syringomyelia. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 2011, 14:570-572.
56. Fischbein N.J., Dillon W.P., Cobbs C., Weinstein P.R. The "presyrinx" state: a reversible myelopathic condition that may precede syringomyelia. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1999, 20:7-20.
57. Fischbein N.J., Dillon W.P., Cobbs C., Weinstein P.R. The "presyrinx" state: is there a reversible myelopathic condition that may precede syringomyelia?. Neurosurgical Focus 2000, 8:1-13.
58. Fricke B., Andres K.H., Von During M. Nerve fibers innervating the cranial and spinal meninges: morphology of nerve fiber terminals and their structural integration. Microscopy Research and Technique 2001, 53:96-105.
59. Gardner W.J. Hydrodynamic mechanism of syringomyelia: its relationship to myelocele. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1965, 28:247-259.
60. Gardner W.J., Angel J. The mechanism of syringomyelia and its surgical correction. Clinical Neurosurgery 1959, 131-140. (Proceedings of the Congress of Neurological Surgeons, San Francisco, U.S.A., 1958. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore).
61. Gardner W.J., Goodall R.J. The surgical treatment of Arnold-Chiari malformation in adults: an explanation of its mechanism and importance of encephalography in diagnosis. Journal of Neurosurgery 1950, 7:199-206.
62. George T.M., Higginbotham N.H. Defining the signs and symptoms of Chiari malformation type I with and without syringomyelia. Neurological Research 2011, 33:240-246.
63. Gillies G.T., Wilhelm T.D., Humphrey J.A.C., Fillmore H.L., Holloway K.L., Broaddus W.C. A spinal cord surrogate with nanoscale porosity for in vitro simulations of restorative neurosurgical techniques. Nanotechnology 2002, 13.
64. Gottschalk A., Schmitz B., Mauer U.M., Bornstedt A., Steinhoff S., Danz B., Schlötzer W., Rasche V. Dynamic visualization of arachnoid adhesions in a patient with idiopathic syringomyelia using high-resolution cine magnetic resonance imaging at 3T. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2010, 32:218-222.
65. Gray H. Anatomy of the Human Body 1918, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.
66. Greitz D. CSF-flow at the craniocervical junction: increased systolic and diastolic pressure gradients as the cause of cystic cord lesions. Imaging of the Craniocervical Junction 1995, 19-23. Edizione del Centauro, Udine Milano. J. Kenéz (Ed.).
67. Greitz D. Unravelling the riddle of syringomyelia. Neurosurgical Review 2006, 29:251-264.
68. Greitz D., Ericson K., Flodmark O. Pathogenesis and mechanics of spinal cord cysts-a new hypothesis based on magnetic resonance studies of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics. International Journal of Neuroradiology 1999, 5:61-78.
69. Greitz D., Flodmark O. Modern concepts of syringohydromyelia. Rivista di Neuroradiologia 2004, 17:360-361.
70. Greitz D., Hannerz J. A proposed model of cerebrospinal fluid circulation: observations with radionuclide cisternography. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1996, 17:431-438.
71. Grotberg J.B., Jensen O.E. Biofluid mechanics in flexible tubes. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 2004, 36:121-147.
72. Gupta S., Poulikakos D., Kurtcuoglu V. Analytical solution for pulsatile viscous flow in a straight elliptic annulus and application to the motion of the cerebrospinal fluid. Physics of Fluids 2008, 20. 093607-093601-093612.
73. Gupta S., Soellinger M., Boesiger P., Poulikakos D., Kurtcuoglu V. Three-dimensional computational modeling of subject-specific cerebrospinal fluid flow in the subarachnoid space. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2009, 131. 021010-021011-021011.
74. Guyton A.C., Hall J.E. Textbook of Medical Physiology 2006, Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia.
75. Häckel M., Beneš V., Mohapl M. Simultaneous cerebral and spinal fluid pressure recordings in surgical indications of the Chiari malformation without myelodysplasia. Acta Neurochirurgica 2001, 143:909-918.
76. Hall P., Turner M., Aichinger S., Bendick P., Campbell R. Experimental syringomyelia: the relationship between intraventricular and intrasyrinx pressures. Journal of Neurosurgery 1980, 52:812-817.
77. Hamada K., Sudoh K., Fukaura H., Yanagihara T., Hamada T., Tashiro K., Isu T. An autopsy case of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis associated with cervical syringomyelia [in Japanese]. No To Shinkei 1990, 42:527-531.
78. Harris P.J., Hardwidge C. A porous finite element model of the motion of the spinal cord. Integral Methods in Science and Engineering 2010, 193-201. Springer. C. Constanda, M.E. Pérez (Eds.).
79. Heil M., Hazel A.L. Fluid-structure interaction in internal physiological flows. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 2011, 43:141-162.
80. Heiss J.D., Patronas N., DeVroom H.L., Shawker T., Ennis R., Kammerer W., Eidsath A., Talbot T., Morris J., Eskioglu E., Oldfield E.H. Elucidating the pathophysiology of syringomyelia. Journal of Neurosurgery 1999, 91:553-562.
81. Hemley S.J., Tu J., Stoodley M.A. Role of the blood-spinal cord barrier in posttraumatic syringomyelia. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 2009, 11:696-704.
82. Henry-Feugeas M.-C., Idy-Peretti I., Baledent O., Poncelet-Didon A., Zannoli G., Bittoun J., Schouman-Claeys E. Origin of subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid pulsations: a phase-contrast MR analysis. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2000, 18:387-395.
83. Hentschel S., Mardal K.-A., Løvgren A.E., Linge S., Haughton V. Characterization of cyclic CSF flow in the foramen magnum and upper cervical spinal canal with MR flow imaging and computational fluid dynamics. American Journal of Neuroradiology 2010, 31:997-1002.
84. Hettiarachchi H.D.M., Hsu Y., Harris T.J.j., Penn R., Linninger A.A. The effect of pulsatile flow on intrathecal drug delivery in the spinal canal. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 2011, 39:2592-2602.
85. Hinokuma K., Ohama E., Oyanagi K., Kakita A., Kawai K., Ikuta F. Syringomyelia: a neuropathological study of 18 autopsy cases. Acta Pathologica Japonica 1992, 42:25-34.
86. Hinsdale G. Syringomyelia: An Essay to which was Awarded the Alvarenga Prize of the College of Philadelphia for the Year 1897, 1895. International Medical Magazine Co, Philadelphia.
87. Holmes G. The Goulstonian Lectures on spinal injuries of warfare. I. The pathology of acute spinal injury. British Medical Journal 1915, 2:769-774.
88. Hoskins M.H., Kunz R.F., Bistline J.E., Dong C. Coupled flow-structure-biochemistry simulations of dynamic systems of blood cells using an adaptive surface tracking method. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2009, 25:936-953.
89. Howe M.S., McGowan R.S. Analysis of flow-structure coupling in a mechanical model of the vocal folds and the subglottal system. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2009, 25:1299-1317.
90. Humphrey J.D. Continuum biomechanics of soft biological tissues. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: A 2003, 459:3-46.
91. Hung T.K., Chang G.L. Biomechanical and neurological response of the spinal cord of a puppy to uniaxial tension. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 1981, 103:43-47.
92. Hung T.K., Chang G.L., Chang J.L., Albin M.S. Stress-strain relationship and neurological sequelae of uniaxial elongation of the spinal cord of cats. Surgical Neurology 1981, 15:471-476.
93. Hung T.K., Lin H.S., Bunegin L., Albin M.S. Mechanical and neurological response of cat spinal cord under static loading. Surgical Neurology 1982, 17:213-217.
94. Ichihara K., Taguchi T., Shimada Y., Sakuramoto I., Kawano S., Kawai S. Gray matter of the bovine cervical spinal cord is mechanically more rigid and fragile than the white matter. Journal of Neurotrauma 2001, 18:361-367.
95. Joffroy A., Achard C. De la myélite cavitaire (observations; réflexions; pathogénie des cavités). Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique 1887, 3:435-472.
96. Johanson C.E. Choroid plexus-cerebrospinal fluid circulatory dynamics: impact on brain, growth, metabolism, and repair. Neuroscience in Medicine 2008, Human Press, Totown, NJ, USA. third ed. P.E. Conn (Ed.).
97. Josephson A., Greitz D., Klason T., Olson L., Spenger C. A spinal thecal sac constriction model supports the theory that induced pressure gradients in the cord cause edema and cyst formation. Neurosurgery 2001, 48:636-646.
98. Kalata W., Martin B.A., Oshinski J.N., Jerosch-Herold M., Royston T.J., Loth F. MR measurement of cerebrospinal fluid velocity wave speed in the spinal canal. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 2009, 56:1765-1768.
99. Kasantikul V., Netsky M.G., James A.E. Relation of age and cerebral ventricle size to central canal in man. Journal of Neurosurgery 1979, 51:85-93.
100. Klekamp J. The pathophysiology of syringomyelia-historical overview and current concept. Acta Neurochirurgica 2002, 144:649-664.
101. Klekamp J. Syringomyelia. Practical Handbook of Neurosurgery 2009, 1260-1276. Springer, Vienna. M. Sindou (Ed.).
102. Klekamp J., Samii M. Syringomyelia: Diagnosis and Treatment 2002, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. first ed.
103. Koyanagi I., Houkin K. Pathogenesis of syringomyelia associated with Chiari type 1 malformation: review of evidences and proposal of a new hypothesis. Neurosurgical Review 2010, 33:271-285.
104. Lederhaus S.C., Pritz M.B., Pribram F.W. Septation in syringomyelia and its possible clinical significance. Neurosurgery 1988, 22:1064-1067.
105. Levine D.N. The pathogenesis of syringomyelia associated with lesions at the foramen magnum: a critical review of existing theories and proposal of a new hypothesis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 2004, 220:3-21.
106. Lichtenstein B.W. Cervical syringomyelia and syringomyelia-like states associated with Arnold-Chiari deformity and platybasia. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1943, 49:881-894.
107. Linge S.O., Haughton V., Løvgren A.E., Mardal K.A., Langtangen H.P. CSF flow dynamics at the craniovertebral junction studied with an idealized model of the subarachnoid space and computational flow analysis. American Journal of Neuroradiology 2010, 31:185-192.
108. Lockey P., Poots G., Williams B. Theoretical aspects of the attenuation of pressure pulses within cerebrospinal-fluid pathways. Medical and Biological Engineering 1975, 13:861-869.
109. Lohle P.N.M., Wurzer H.A.L., Hoogland P.H., Seelen P.J., Go K.G. The pathogenesis of syringomyelia in spinal cord ependymoma. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 1994, 96:323-326.
110. Loth F., Yardimci M.A., Alperin N. Hydrodynamic modelling of cerebrospinal fluid motion within the spinal cavity. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2001, 123:71-79.
111. Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, 2006a. Second ed. Merriam-Webster, Springfield, MA.
112. Mack J., Squier W., Eastman J.T. Anatomy and development of the meninges: implications for subdural collections and CSF circulation. Pediatric Radiology 2009, 39:200-210.
113. Maikos J.T., Elias R.A.I., Shreiber D.I. Mechanical properties of dura mater from the rat brain and spinal cord. Journal of Neurotrauma 2008, 25:38-51.
114. Margaris K.A., Black R.A. Modelling the lymphatic system: challenges and opportunities. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2012, 9:601-612.
115. Marieb E.N. Human Anatomy and Physiology 2000, Benjamin Cummings.
116. Marmarou A., Shulman K., LaMorgese J. Compartmental analysis of compliance and outflow resistance of the cerebrospinal fluid system. Journal of Neurosurgery 1975, 43:523-534.
117. Martin B.A., Labuda R., Royston T.J., Oshinski J.N., Iskandar B., Loth F. Spinal subarachnoid space pressure measurements in an in vitro spinal stenosis model: implications on syringomyelia theories. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2010, 132. 111007-111001-111011.
118. Martin B.A., Loth F. The influence of coughing on cerebrospinal fluid pressure in an in vitro syringomyelia model with spinal subarachnoid space stenosis. Cerebrospinal Fluid Research 2009, 6. (18 pages).
119. Martin B.A., Reymond P., Novy P., Baledent O., Stergiopoulos N. A coupled hydrodynamic model of the cardiovascular and cerebrospinal fluid system. American Journal of Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology 2012, 302:H1492-H1509.
120. Martin J.H. Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas 2003, McGraw Hill.
121. Martinez-Arizala A., Mora R.J., Madsen P., Green B.A., Hayashi N. Dorsal spinal venous occlusion in the rat. Journal of Neurotrauma 1995, 12:199-208.
122. Mazuchowski, E.L., Thibault, L.E., 2003. Biomechanical properties of the human spinal cord and pia mater. In: Proceedings of the ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference. Key Biscayne, FL, 25-29 June, pp. 1205-1206.
123. McGrath J.T. Spinal dysraphism in the dog with comments on syringomyelia. Pathologia Veterinaria 1965, 2:1-36.
124. Milhorat T.H., Capocelli A.L., Anzil A.P., Kotzen R.M., Milhorat R.H. Pathological basis of spinal cord cavitation in syringomyelia: analysis of 105 autopsy cases. Journal of Neurosurgery 1995, 82:802-812.
125. Milhorat T.H., Capocelli A.L., Kotzen R.M., Bolognese P., Heger I.M., Cottrell J.E. Intramedullary pressure in syringomyelia: clinical and pathophysiological correlates of syrinx distension. Neurosurgery 1997, 41:1102-1110.
126. Milhorat T.H., Chou M.W., Trinidad E.M., Kula R.W., Mandell M., Wolpert C., Speer M.C. Chiari I malformation redefined: clinical and radiographic findings for 364 symptomatic patients. Neurosurgery 1999, 44:1005-1017.
127. Milhorat T.H., Kotzen R.M., Anzil A.P. Stenosis of central canal of spinal cord in man: incidence and pathological findings in 232 autopsy cases. Journal of Neurosurgery 1994, 80:716-722.
128. Morgagni, G.B., 1769. Of the hydrocephalus, and watry tumours of the spine. In: The Seats and Causes of Disease as Investigated by Anatomy (1761, tr. Alexander B). Miller & Candell Publishers, London, pp. Letter XII, Article 9, 255-257.
129. Moriwaki F., Tashiro K., Tachibana S., Yada K. [Epidemiology of syringomyelia in Japan-the nationwide survey]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 1995, 35:1395-1397.
130. Nash M.P., Hunter P.J. Computational mechanics of the heart. Journal of Elasticity 2000, 61:113-141.
131. Netter F.H. The nervous system. The Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations 1953, 44. Ciba Pharmaceutical Products, New Jersey. F.H. Netter (Ed.).
132. Nicholas D.S., Weller R.O. The fine anatomy of the human spinal meninges. Journal of Neurosurgery 1988, 69:276-282.
133. Nicholson C. Structure of extracellular space and physiochemical properties of molecules governing drug movement in brain and spinal cord. Spinal Drug Delivery 1999, 253-269. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. T.L. Yaksh (Ed.).
134. Nolte J. The Human Brain: An Introduction to its Functional Anatomy 2002, Mosby, St. Louis.
135. Oakland R.J., Hall R.M., Wilcox R.K., Barton D.C. The biomechanical response of spinal cord tissue to uniaxial loading. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine 2006, 220:489-492.
136. Odéen H., Uppman M., Markl M., Spottiswoode B.S. Assessing cerebrospinal fluid flow connectivity using 3D gradient echo phase contrast velocity encoded MRI. Physiological Measurement 2011, 32:407-421.
137. Oldfield E.H., Muraszko K., Shawker T.H., Patronas N.J. Pathophysiology of syringomyelia associated with Chiari I malformation of the cerebellar tonsils. Implications for diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Neurosurgery 1994, 80:3-15.
138. Ollivier D'Angers C.P. Traité de la moelle épinière et de ses maladies: contenant l'histoire anatomique, physiologique et pathologique de ce centre nerveux chez l'homme 1827, Chez Crevot, Paris.
139. Ouyang H., Galle B., Li J., Nauman E., Shi R. Biomechanics of spinal cord injury: a multimodal investigation using ex vivo guinea pig spinal cord white matter. Journal of Neurotrauma 2008, 25:19-29.
140. Ozawa H., Matsumoto T., Ohashi T., Sato M., Kokubun S. Comparison of spinal cord gray matter and white matter softness: measurement by pipette aspiration method. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 2001, 95:221-224.
141. Ozawa H., Matsumoto T., Ohashi T., Sato M., Kokubun S. Mechanical properties and function of the spinal pia mater. Journal of Neurosurgery (Spine) 2004, 1:122-127.
142. Païdoussis M.P. Fluid-Structure Interactions-Slender Structures and Axial Flow 2004, vol. 2. Elsevier Academic Press, London.
143. Park E.-H., Dombrowski S., Luciano M., Zurakowski D., Madsen J.R. Alterations of pulsation absorber characteristics in experimental hydrocephalus. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics 2010, 6:159-170.
144. Parkinson D. Human spinal arachnoid septa, trabeculae, and "rogue strands". American Journal of Anatomy 1991, 192:498-509.
145. Patin D.J., Eckstein E.C., Harum K., Pallares V.S. Anatomic and biomechanical properties of human lumbar dura mater. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1993, 76:535-540.
146. Persson C., Summers J., Hall R.M. The importance of fluid-structure interaction in spinal trauma models. Journal of Neurotrauma 2011, 28:113-125.
147. Peskin C.S. The immersed boundary method. Acta Numerica 2002, 11:479-517.
148. Pillay P.K., Awad I.A., Little J.R., Hahn J.F. Symptomatic Chiari malformation in adults: a new classification based on magnetic resonance imaging with clinical and prognostic significance. Neurosurgery 1991, 28:639-645.
149. Rare Diseases Act of 2002, 2002, Public Law 107-280, 116 Stat. 1987.
150. Redzic Z.B., Preston J.E., Duncan J.A., Chodobski A., Szmydynger-Chodobska J. The choroid plexus-cerebrospinal fluid system: from development to aging. Current Topics in Developmental Biology 2005, Academic Press. G.P. Schatten (Ed.).
151. Reina M.A., Casasola O.D.L., Villanueva M.C., Lopez A., Maches F., De Andres J.A. Ultrastructural findings in human spinal pia mater in relation to subarachnoid anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2004, 98:1479-1485.
152. Rennels M.L., Gregory T.F., Blaumanis O.R., Fujimoto K., Grady P.A. Evidence for a 'paravascular' fluid circulation in the mammalian central nervous system, provided by the rapid distribution of tracer protein throughout the brain from the subarachnoid space. Brain Research 1985, 326:47-63.
153. Rice-Edwards J.M. A pathological study of syringomyelia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1977, 40:198.
154. Riley H.A. Syringomyelia or myelodysplasia. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1930, 72:1-27.
155. Roldan A., Weiben O., Haughton V., Osswald T., Chester N. Characterization of CSF hydrodynamics in the presence and absence of tonsillar ectopia by means of computational flow analysis. American Journal of Neuroradiology 2009, 30:941-946.
156. Roosen N., Dahlhaus P., Lumenta C.B., Lins E., Stork W., Gahlen D., Bock W.J. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in the management of primary and secondary syringomyelic cavities, and of other cystic lesions of the spinal cord. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement (Wien) 1988, 43:13-16.
157. Runza M., Pietrabissa R., Mantero S., Albani A., Quaglini V., Contro R. Lumbar dura mater biomechanics: experimental characterization and scanning electron microscopy observations. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1999, 88:1317-1321.
158. Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 2006b, 28th ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia.
159. Saadoun S., Papadopoulos M.C. Aquaporin-4 in brain and spinal cord oedema. Neuroscience 2010, 168:1036-1046.
160. Sakushima K., Tsuboi S., Yabe I., Hida K., Terae S., Uehara R., Nakano I., Sasak H. Nationwide survey on the epidemiology of syringomyelia in Japan. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 2011, 313:147-152.
161. Samii M., Klekamp J. Surgical results of 100 intramedullary tumors in relation to accompanying syringomyelia. Neurosurgery 1994, 35:865-873.
162. Sanan A., van Loveren H.R. The arachnoid and the myth of Arachne. Neurosurgery 1999, 45:152-157.
163. Santini F., Wetzel S.G., Bock J., Markl M., Scheffler K. Time-resolved three-dimensional (3D) phase-contrast (PC) balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP). Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 2009, 62:966-974.
164. Saxena T., Gilbert J.L., Hasenwinkel J.M. A versatile mesoindentation system to evaluate the micromechanical properties of soft, hydrated substrates on a cellular scale. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A 2009, 90:1206-1217.
165. Shaffer N., Martin B.A., Loth F. Cerebrospinal fluid hydrodynamics in type I Chari malformation. Neurological Research 2011, 33:247-260.
166. Smillie A., Sobey I., Molnar Z. A hydroelastic model of hydrocephalus. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 2005, 539:417-442.
167. Sparrey C.J., Keaveny T.M. Compression behavior of porcine spinal cord white matter. Journal of Biomechanics 2011, 44:1078-1082.
168. Speer M.C., Enterline D.S., Mehltretter L., Hammock P., Joseph J., Dickerson M., Ellenbogen R.G., Milhorat T.H., Hauser M.A., George T.M. Chiari type I malformation with or without syringomyelia: prevalence and genetics. Journal of Genetic Counseling 2003, 12:297-311.
169. Stettler J.C., Fazle Hussain A.K.M. On transition of the pulsatile pipe flow. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1986, 170:169-197.
170. Stockman H.W. Effect of anatomical fine structure on the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal subarachnoid space. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2006, 128:106-114.
171. Stockman H.W. Effect of anatomical fine structure on the dispersion of solutes in the spinal subarachnoid space. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 2007, 129:666-675.
172. Stoodley M.A., Brown S.A., Brown C.J., Jones N.R. Arterial pulsation-dependent perivascular cerebrospinal fluid flow into the central canal in the sheep spinal cord. Journal of Neurosurgery 1997, 86:686-693.
173. Stoodley M.A., Gutschmidt B., Jones N.R. Cerebrospinal fluid flow in an animal model of noncommunicating syringomyelia. Neurosurgery 1999, 44:1065-1077.
174. Stoodley M.A., Jones N.R., Brown C.J. Evidence for rapid fluid flow from the subarachnoid space into the spinal cord central canal in the rat. Brain Research 1996, 707:155-164.
175. Stoodley M.A., Jones N.R., Yang L., Brown C.J. Mechanisms underlying the formation and enlargement of noncommunicating syringomyelia: experimental studies. Neurosurgical Focus 2000, 8:1-7.
176. Storer K.P., Toh J., Stoodley M.A., Jones N.R. The central canal of the human spinal cord: a computerised 3-D study. Journal of Anatomy 1998, 192:565-572.
177. Sweetman B., Linninger A.A. Cerebrospinal fluid flow dynamics in the central nervous system. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 2011, 39:484-496.
178. The Visible Human Project®. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
179. Takizawa H., Gabra-Sanders T., Miller J.D. Spectral analysis of the CSF pulse wave at different locations in the craniospinal axis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1986, 49:1135-1141.
180. Tarlov I.M., Klinger H., Vitale S. Spinal cord compression studies. Experimental techniques to produce acute and gradual compression. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1953, 70:813-819.
181. Tauber E.S., Langworthy O.R. A study of syringomyelia and the formation of cavities in the spinal cord. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1935, 81:245-264.
182. Tencer A.F., Allen B.L., Ferguson R.L. A biomechanical study of thoracolumbar spinal fractures. Part III. Mechanical properties of the dura and its tethering ligaments. Spine 1985, 10:741-747.
183. Tu J., Liao J., Stoodley M.A., Cunningham A.M. Differentiation of endogenous progenitors in an animal model of post-traumatic syringomyelia. Spine 2010, 35:1116-1121.
184. Tu J., Liao J., Stoodley M.A., Cunningham A.M. Reaction of endogenous progenitor cells in a rat model of posttraumatic syringomyelia. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 2011, 14:573-582.
185. Tubbs R.S., Salter G., Grabb P.A., Oakes W.J. The denticulate ligament: anatomy and functional significance. Journal of Neurosurgery 2001, 94:271-275.
186. Tully B., Ventikos Y. Cerebral water transport using multiple-network poroelastic theory: application to normal pressure hydrocephalus. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 2011, 667:188-215.
187. Tunturi A.R. Elasticity of the spinal cord dura in the dog. Journal of Neurosurgery 1977, 47:391-396.
188. Tunturi A.R. Elasticity of the spinal cord, pia, and denticulate ligament in the dog. Journal of Neurosurgery 1978, 48:975-979.
189. Urayama K. Origin of lumbar cerebrospinal fluid pulse wave. Spine 1994, 19:441-445.
190. Vandenabeele F., Creemers J., Lambrichts I. Ultrastructure of the human spinal arachnoid mater and dura mater. Journal of Anatomy 1996, 189:417-430.
191. Wagshul M.E., Chen J.J., Egnor M.R., McCormack E.J., Roche P.E. Amplitude and phase of cerebrospinal fluid pulsations: experimental studies and review of the literature. Journal of Neurosurgery 2006, 104:810-819.
192. Watton P.N., Luo X.-Y., Yin M., Bernacca G.M., Wheatley D.J. Effect of ventricle motion on the dynamic behaviour of chorded mitral valves. Journal of Fluids and Structures 2008, 24:58-74.
193. Wester K., Kjosavik I.-F., Midgard R. Multicystic syringomyelia treated with a single, non-valved syringoperitoneal shunt: fast and near-complete MRI normalization. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement (Wien) 1989, 98:148-152.
194. Wiedemayer H., Nau H.E., Raukut F., Gerhard L., Reinhard V., Grote W. Pathogenesis and operative treatment of syringomyelia. Advances in Neurosurgery 1990, 18:119-125.
195. Wilcox R.K., Bilston L.E., Barton D.C., Hall R.M. Mathematical model for the viscoelastic properties of dura mater. Journal of Orthopaedic Science 2003, 8:432-434.
196. Williams B. The distending force in production of communicating syringomyelia. The Lancet 1969, 2:189-193.
197. Williams B. Current concepts of syringomyelia. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 1970, 4:331-342.
198. Williams B. Combined cisternal and lumbar pressure recordings in the sitting position using differential manometry. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1972, 35:142-143.
199. Williams B. A demonstration analogue for ventricular and intraspinal dynamics (DAVID). Journal of the Neurological Sciences 1974, 23:445-461.
200. Williams B. Cerebrospinal fluid pressure changes in response to coughing. Brain 1976, 99:331-346.
201. Williams B. On the pathogenesis of syringomyelia: a review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1980, 73:798-806.
202. Williams B. Progress in syringomyelia. Neurological Research 1986, 8:130-145.
203. Williams B. Syringomyelia. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1990, 1:653-685.
204. Wong J., Hemley S., Jones N., Cheng S., Bilston L., Stoodley M. Fluid outflow in a large-animal model of posttraumatic syringomyelia. Neurosurgery 2012, 71:474-480.
205. Yamada S., Won D.J., Pezeshkpour G., Yamada B.S., Yamada S.M., Siddiqi J., Zouros A., Colohan A.R.T. Pathophysiology of tethered cord syndrome and similar complex disorders. Neurosurgical Focus 2007, 23:E6-1-10.
206. Yang L., Jones N.R., Stoodley M.A., Blumbergs P.C., Brown C.J. Excitotoxic model of post-traumatic syringomyelia in the rat. Spine 2001, 26:1842-1849.
207. Yang S., Yang X., Hong G. Surgical treatment of one hundred seventy-four intramedullary spinal cord tumors. Spine 2009, 34:2705-2710.
208. Zarzur E. Mechanical properties of the human lumbar dura mater. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 1996, 54:455-460.
209. Zhang E.T., Inman C.B.E., Weller R.O. Interrelationships of the pia mater and the perivascular (Virchow-Robin) spaces in the human cerebrum. Journal of Anatomy 1990, 170:111-123.