When Death is Good for Life: Considering the Positive Trajectories of Terror Management

Personality and Social Psychology Review

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 303-329

  Vail III, Kenneth E ^a   Juhl, Jacob ^b   Arndt, Jamie ^a   Vess, Matthew ^c   Routledge, Clay ^b   Rutjens, Bastiaan T ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

^b NORTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c OHIO UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

close relationships; death mortality salience; health; helping prosocial behavior; intergroup relations; motivation goals; norms social roles; positive; social cognition; terror management

Indexed keywords

EID: 84866922826     PISSN: 10888683     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1088868312440046     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Abdollahi A.,Pyszczynski T.,Maxfield M.,Luszczynska A.Posttraumatic stress reactions as a disruption in anxiety-buffer functioning: Dissociation and responses to mortality salience as predictors of severity of posttraumatic symptoms.Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2011;:.
2. Allport G. W.The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Addison-Wesley; 1954:.
3. Altemeyer B.Why do religious fundamentalists tend to be prejudiced?.International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 2003;13:17-28.
4. Amabile T. M.Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview; 1996:.
5. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Washington, DC: Author; 2000:.
6. Arndt J.,Cox C. R.,Goldenberg J. L.,Vess M.,Routledge C.,Cohen F.Blowing in the (social) wind: Implications of extrinsic esteem contingencies for terror management and health.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;96:1191-1205.
7. Arndt J.,Goldenberg J. L.The handbook of self-enhancement and self-protection. Sedikides C.Alicke M., ed. Guilford; in press:.
8. Arndt J.,Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.Subliminal exposure to death-related stimuli increases defense of the cultural worldview.Psychological Science. 1997;8:379-385.
9. Arndt J.,Greenberg J.,Schimel J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.To belong or not to belong, that is the question: Terror management and identification with gender and ethnicity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;83:26-43.
10. Arndt J.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Pyszczynski T.,Schimel J.Creativity and terror management: The effects of creative activity on guilt and social projection following mortality salience.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:19-32.
11. Arndt J.,Landau M.,Vail K. E.,Vess M.The psychology of meaning. Markman K.Proulx T.Lindberg M., ed. in press:.
12. Arndt J.,Routledge C.,Goldenberg J. L.Predicting proximal health responses to reminders of death: The influence of coping style and health optimism.Psychology and Health. 2006;21:593-614.
13. Arndt J.,Routledge C.,Greenberg J.,Sheldon K. M.Illuminating the dark side of creative expression: Assimilation needs and the consequences of creative action following mortality salience.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2005;31:1327-1339.
14. Arndt J.,Schimel J.,Goldenberg J. L.Death can be good for your health: Fitness intentions as a proximal and distal defense against mortality salience.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2003;33:1726-1746.
15. ArndtJ.VailK. E.CoxC.GoldenbergJ.PiaseckiT.GibbonsR. (2011). Dying for a smoke: The interactive effect of mortality reminders and tobacco craving on smoking topography. Unpublished manuscript, University of Missouri-Columbia.
16. Aurelius M.Meditations. Mount Vernon, NY: Peter Pauper; 1957:.
17. Baker J. M.,Kelly C.,Calhoun L. G.,Cann A.,Tedeschi R. G.An examination of posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic depreciation: Two exploratory studies.Journal of Loss and Trauma. 2008;13:450-465.
18. Barron F.Creativity and personal freedom. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1968:.
19. Batson C. D.,Ahmad N.,Lishner D. A.Oxford handbook of positive psychology. 2009). Empathy and altruism. In LopezS. J.SnyderC. R. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Lopez S. J.Snyder C. R., ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009:.
20. Becker E.The birth and death of meaning. New York, NY: Free Press; 1962:.
21. Becker E.The denial of death. New York, NY: Free Press; 1973:.
22. Becker E.Escape from evil. New York, NY: Free Press; 1975:.
23. Berger P.,Luckmann T.The social construction of reality. New York, NY: Anchor; 1967:.
24. BlankmeyerK.HackathornJ.BequetteA. W.ClarkE. M. (2011). Till death do we part: Effects of mortality salience on romantic relationship factors. Unpublished manuscript, Saint Louis University.
25. Block J. H.,Block J.Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: The Minnesota symposia on child psychology. Collins W. A., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1980:.
26. Bowlby J.Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1969:.
27. Brewer M. B.The social self: On being the same and different at the same time.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1991;17:475-482.
28. BrookA. T. (2005). Effects of contingencies of self-worth on self-regulation of behavior (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
29. Bushman B. J.,Ridge R. D.,Das E.,Key C. W.,Busath G. L.When God sanctions killing: Effect of scriptural violence on aggression.Psychological Science. 2007;18:204-207.
30. Carstensen L. L.,Isaacowitz D. M.,Charles S. T.Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity.American Psychologist. 1999;54:165-181.
31. Carstensen L. L.,Mikels J. A.At the intersection of emotion and cognition: Aging and the positivity effect.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2005;14:117-121.
32. Castano E.,Yzerbyt V.,Paladino M.,Sacchi S.I belong, therefore, I exist: Ingroup identification, ingroup entitativity, and ingroup bias.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;28:135-143.
33. Chatard A.,Pyszczynski T.,Arndt J.,Selimbegovic L.,Konan P. N.'D.,Van der Linden M.Extent of trauma exposure and PTSD symptom severity as predictors of anxiety-buffer functioning.Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2011;:.
34. Cooper D. P.,Goldenberg J. L.,Arndt J.Examination of the terror management health model: The interactive effect of conscious death thought and health-coping variables on decisions in potentially fatal health domains.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2010;36:937-946.
35. Cooper D. P.,Goldenberg J. L.,Arndt J.Empowering the self: Using the terror management health model to promote breast self-exam intention.Self and Identity. 2011;10:315-325.
36. Cox C. R.,Arndt J.How sweet it is to be loved by you: The role of perceived regard in the terror management of close relationships.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2012;102:616-632.
37. Cox C. R.,Arndt J.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Abdollahi A.,Solomon S.Terror management and adults' attachment to their parents: The safe haven remains.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;94:696-717.
38. Cox C. R.,Cooper D. P.,Vess M.,Arndt J.,Goldenberg J. L.,Routledge C.Bronze is beautiful but pale can be pretty: The effects of appearance standards and mortality salience on sun-tanning outcomes.Health Psychology. 2009;28:746-752.
39. Cozzolino P. J.Death contemplation, growth, and defense: Converging evidence of dual systems?.Psychological Inquiry. 2006;17:278-287.
40. Cozzolino P. J.,Sheldon K. M.,Schachtman T. R.,Meyers L. S.Limited time perspective, values, and greed: Imagining a limited future reduces avarice in extrinsic people.Journal of Research in Personality. 2009;43:399-408.
41. Cozzolino P. J.,Staples A. D.,Meyers L. S.,Samboceti J.Greed, death, and values: From terror management to transcendence management theory.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2004;30:278-292.
42. Crocker J.,Park L. E.The costly pursuit of self-esteem.Psychological Bulletin. 2004;130:392-414.
43. Crocker J.,Wolfe C.Contingencies of self-worth.Psychological Review. 2001;108:593-623.
44. Daleidin J. L.The science of morality: The individual, community, and future generations. Amherst, NY: Prometheus; 1998:.
45. Da Vinci L.Codex Atlanticus. Milan, Italy: Biblioteca Ambrosiana; 1478-1519.:.
46. Dechesne M.,Janssen J.,van Knippenberg A.Defense and distancing as terror management strategies: The moderating role of need for structure and permeability of group boundaries.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;79:923-932.
47. Deci E. L.,Ryan R. M.The support of autonomy and the control of behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1987;53:1024-1037.
48. Deci E. L.,Ryan R. M.The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior.Psychological Inquiry. 2000;11:227-268.
49. Edmondson D.,Park C. L.,Chaudoir S. R.,Wortman J. H.Death without God: Religious struggle, death concerns, and depression in the terminally ill.Psychological Science. 2008;19:754-758.
50. Erikson E.Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton; 1963:.
51. Festinger L.Theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1957:.
52. Florian V.,Mikulincer M.Terror management in childhood: Does death conceptualization moderate the effects of mortality salience on acceptance of similar and different others.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1998;24:1104-1112.
53. Florian V.,Mikulincer M.,Hirschberger G.An existentialist view on mortality salience effects: Personal hardiness, death-thought accessibility, and cultural worldview defence.British Journal of Social Psychology. 2001;40:437-453.
54. Florian V.,Mikulincer M.,Hirschberger G.The anxiety-buffering function of close relationships: Evidence that relationship commitment acts as a terror management mechanism.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;82:527-542.
55. Frankl V. E.Man's search for meaning. Boston, MA: Beacon; 2006:.
56. Fritsche I.,Jonas E.,Fischer P.,Koranyi N.,Berger N.,Fleischmann B.Mortality salience and the desire for offspring.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2007;43:753-762.
57. Fritsche I.,Jonas E.,Kayser D.,Koranyi N.Existential threat and compliance with pro-environmental norms.Journal of Environmental Psychology. 2010;30:67-79.
58. Gaertner S.,Dovidio J.,Anastasio P. A.,Bachman B. A.,Rust M. C.The common in-group identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. The European Review of Social Psychology. 1993;4:1-26.
59. Gailliot M.,Schmeichel B.,Baumeister R.Self-regulatory processes defend against the threat of death: Effects of self-control depletion and trait self-control on thoughts and fears of dying.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;91:49-62.
60. Gailliot M. T.,Sillman T. F.,Schmeichel B. J.,Maner J. K.,Plant E. A.Mortality salience increases adherence to salient norms and values.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2008;34:993-1003.
61. Gobodo-Madikizela P.Remorse, forgiveness, and rehumanization: Stories from South Africa.Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 2002;42:7-32.
62. Goldenberg J. L.The body stripped down: An existential account of ambivalence toward the physical body.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2005;14:224-228.
63. Goldenberg J. L.,Arndt J.The implications of death for health: A terror management health model for behavioral health promotion.Psychological Review. 2008;115:1032-1053.
64. Goldenberg J. L.,Cox C. R.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.Understanding human ambivalence about sex: The effects of stripping sex of meaning.Journal of Sex Research. 2002;39:310-320.
65. Goldenberg J. L.,Hart J.,Pyszczynski T.,Warnica G. W.,Landau M. J.,Thomas L.Ambivalence towards the body: Death, neuroticism, and the flight from physical sensation.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2006;32:1264-1277.
66. Goldenberg J. L.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.Fleeing the body: A terror management perspective on the problem of human corporeality.Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2000;4:200-218.
67. Goldenberg J. L.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Kluck B.,Cornwell R.I am not an animal: Mortality salience, disgust, and the denial of human creatureliness.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2001;130:427-435.
68. Goldenberg J. L.,Pyszczynski T.,McCoy S. K.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.Death, sex, love, and neuroticism: Why is sex such a problem?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:1173-1187.
69. Goldenberg J. L.,Roberts T.Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Greenberg J.Koole S. L.Pyszczynski T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2004:71-85.
70. Greenberg J.,Martens A.,Jonas E.,Eisenstadt D.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.Psychological defense in anticipation of anxiety: Eliminating the potential for anxiety eliminates the effects of mortality salience on worldview defense.Psychological Science. 2003;14:516-519.
71. Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.Public self and private self. Baumeister R. F., ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1986:189-212.
72. Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. Kernis M. H., ed. New York, NY: Plenum; 1995:73-99.
73. Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,Rosenblatt A.,Veeder M.,Kirkland S.,Lyon D.Evidence for terror management II: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1990;58:308-318.
74. Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,Simon L.,Breus M.Role of consciousness and accessibility of death-related thoughts in mortality salience effects.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1994;67:627-637.
75. Greenberg J.,Simon L.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,Chatel D.Terror management and tolerance: Does mortality salience always intensify negative reactions to others who threaten one's worldview?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1992;63:212-220.
76. Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Arndt J.Handbook of motivation science. Shah J. Y.Gardner W. L., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2008:114-134.
77. Greyson B.Near-death experiences and personal values.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1983;140:618-620.
78. Greyson B.Reduced death threat in near-death experiencers.Death Studies. 1992;16:523-536.
79. Greyson B.Defining near-death experiences.Mortality. 1999;4:7-19.
80. Greyson B.,Bush N. E.Distressing near-death experiences.Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes. 1992;55:95-110.
81. Harmon-Jones E.,Simon L.,Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,McGregor H.Terror management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduces mortality salience effects.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1997;72:24-36.
82. Harris S.The moral landscape: How science can determine human values. New York, NY: Free Press; 2010:.
83. Hart J.,Shaver P. R.,Goldenberg J. L.Attachment, self-esteem, worldviews, and terror management: Evidence for a tripartite security system.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005;88:999-1013.
84. Hathaway L. M.,Boals A.,Banks J. B.PTSD symptoms and dominant emotional response to a traumatic event: An examination of DSM-IV criterion A2.Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal. 2010;23:119-126.
85. Hayes J.,Schimel J.,Arndt J.,Faucher E. H.A theoretical and empirical review of the death-thought accessibility concept in terror management research.Psychological Bulletin. 2010;136:699-739.
86. Hayes J.,Schimel J.,Williams T. J.Fighting death with death: The buffering effects of learning that worldview violators have died.Psychological Science. 2008;19:501-507.
87. HeflickN. A.GoldenbergJ. L.KeroackL. J.CooperD. P. (2011). Grim reaping psychological well-being: Repeated death contemplation, intrinsic motivation, and depression. Unpublished manuscript, University of South Florida.
88. Heidegger M.Being and time. New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1982:.
89. Heine S. J.,Harihara M.,Niiya Y.Terror management in Japan.Asian Journal of Social Psychology. 2002;5:187-196.
90. Henderson-King D.,Henderson-King E.,Bolea B.,Koches K.,Kauffman A.Seeking understanding or sending bombs: Beliefs as predictors of responses to terrorism.Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. 2004;10:67-84.
91. Hennessy B. A.,Amabile T. M.Creativity.Annual Review of Psychology. 2010;61:569-598.
92. Hirschberger G.,Ein-Dor T.,Almakias S.The self-protective altruist: Terror management and the ambivalent nature of prosocial behavior.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2008;34:666-678.
93. Hirschberger G.,Florian V.,Mikulincer M.Strivings for romantic intimacy following partner complaint or criticism: A terror management perspective.Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 2003;20:675-687.
94. Hobfoll S.The Oxford handbook of stress, health, and coping. Folkman S., ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2011:127-147.
95. Jackson K. M.,Aiken L. S.Evaluation of a multicomponent appearance-based sun-protective intervention for young women: Uncovering the mechanisms for program efficacy.Health Psychology. 2006;25:34-46.
96. James W.The varieties of religious experience. New York, NY: Penguin; 1902:.
97. Janoff-Bulman R.Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York, NY: Free Press; 1992:.
98. Joireman J.,Duell B.Mother Teresa versus Ebenezer Scrooge: Mortality salience leads proselfs to endorse self-transcendent values (unless proselfs are reassured).Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2005;31:307-320.
99. Jonas E.,Fischer P.Terror management and religion: Evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;91:553-567.
100. Jonas E.,Martens A.,Niesta D.,Fritsche I.,Sullivan D.,Greenberg J.Focus theory of normative conduct and terror management theory: The interactive impact of mortality salience and norm salience on social judgment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;95:1239-1251.
101. Jonas E.,Schimel J.,Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.The Scrooge effect: Evidence that mortality salience increases prosocial attitudes and behavior.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;28:1342-1353.
102. Kasser T.,Ryan R. M.A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;65:410-422.
103. Kasser T.,Ryan R. M.Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1996;22:280-287.
104. Kasser T.,Sheldon K. M.Of wealth and death: Materialism, mortality salience, and consumption behavior.Psychological Science. 2000;11:348-351.
105. King L. A.The science of psychology: An appreciative view. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill; 2008:.
106. Kobasa S. C.,Maddi S. R.,Kahn S.Hardiness and health: A prospective study.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1982;42:168-177.
107. Koole S. L.,Van den Berg A. E.Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Greenberg J.Koole S. L.Pyszczynski T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2004:86-103.
108. Kosloff S.,Greenberg J.Pearls in the desert: Death reminders provoke immediate derogation of extrinsic goals, but delayed inflation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2009;45:197-203.
109. Kosloff S.,Greenberg J.,Sullivan D.,Weise D.Of trophies and pillars: Exploring the terror management functions of short-term and long-term relationship partners.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2010;36:1037-1051.
110. Kunda Z.The case for motivated reasoning.Psychological Bulletin. 1990;108:480-498.
111. Landau M. J.,Goldenberg J.,Greenberg J.,Gillath O.,Solomon S.,Cox C., Pyszczynski T.The siren's call: Terror management and the threat of men's sexual attraction to women.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;90:129-146.
112. Landau M. J.,Greenberg J.,Sullivan D.,Routledge C.,Arndt J.The protective identity: Evidence that mortality salience heightens the clarity and coherence of the self-concept.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2009;45:796-807.
113. Landau M. J.,Johns M.,Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,Martens A.A Function of form: Terror management and structuring of the social world.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2004;87:190-210.
114. Landau M. J.,Solomon S.,Greenberg J.,Cohen F.,Pyszczynski T.,Arndt J., Cook A.Deliver us from evil: The effects of mortality salience and reminders of 9/11 on support for President George W. Bush.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2004;30:1136-1150.
115. Laythe B.,Finkel D.,Kirkpatrick L. A.Predicting prejudice from religious fundamentalism and right-wing authoritarianism: A multiple-regression approach.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 2001;40:1-10.
116. Leary M. R.,Baumeister R. F.Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M. P., ed. New York, NY: Academic Press; 2000:1-62.
117. Leary M. R.,Tchividijian L. R.,Kraxberger B. E.Self-presentation can be hazardous to your health: Impression management and health risk.Health Psychology. 1994;13:461-470.
118. Letzring T. D.,Block J.,Funder D. C.Ego-control and ego-resiliency: Generalization of self-report scales based on personality descriptions from acquaintances, clinicians, and the self.Journal of Research on Personality. 2005;39:395-422.
119. Lifton R. J.The broken connection: On death and the continuity of life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster; 1979:.
120. Linley P. A.,Joseph S.Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2004;17:11-21.
121. Lucas G.Kurtz G.Kershner I.United States: Lucasfilm; 1980:.
122. Lykins E. L. B.,Segerstrom S. C.,Averill A. J.,Evans D. R.,Kemeny M. E.Goal shifts following reminders of mortality: Reconciling posttraumatic growth and terror management theory.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2007;33:1088-1099.
123. Marley B.,Tosh P.Get up, stand up. On Burnin'. Kingston, Jamaica: Tuff Gong Records/Island Records; 1973:.
124. Martens A.,Burke B. L.,Schimel J.,Faucher E. H.Same but different: Meta-analytically examining the uniqueness of mortality salience effects.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2011;41:6-10.
125. Martin I. M.,Kamins M. A.An application of terror management theory in the design of social and health-related anti-smoking appeals.Journal of Consumer Behaviour. 2010;9:172-190.
126. Martin L. L.,Campbell W. K.,Henry C. D.Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Greenberg J.Koole S. L.Pyszczynski T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2004:431-448.
127. Maslow A. H.A theory of human motivation.Psychological Review. 1943;50:370-396.
128. Maslow A. H.Toward a psychology of being. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1968:.
129. Maxfield M.,Pyszczynski T.,Kluck B.,Cox C.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Weise D.Age-related differences in responses to thoughts of one's own death: Mortality salience and judgments of moral transgressors.Psychology and Aging. 2007;22:343-351.
130. McAdams D. P.,de St.,Aubin E.,Logan R. L.Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults.Psychology & Aging. 1993;8:221-230.
131. McCann S. J. H.Societal threat, authoritarianism, conservatism, and U.S. state death penalty sentencing (1977-2004).Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;94:913-923.
132. McGregor H.,Lieberman J. D.,Solomon S.,Greenberg J.,Arndt J.,Simon L.,Pyszczynski T.Terror management and aggression: Evidence that mortality salience motivates aggression against worldview threatening others.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;74:590-605.
133. Mikulincer M.,Florian V.Exploring individual differences in reactions to mortality salience: Does attachment style regulate terror management mechanisms?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;79:260-273.
134. Mikulincer M.,Florian V.,Birnbaum G.,Malishkevich S.The death-anxiety buffering function of close relationships: Exploring the effects of separation reminders on death-thought accessibility.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;28:287-299.
135. Mikulincer M.,Florian V.,Hirschberger G.The existential function of close relationships: Introducing death into the science of love.Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2003;7:20-40.
136. Mikulincer M.,Florian V.,Hirschberger G.Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Greenberg J.Koole S. L.Pyszczynski T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2004:287-304.
137. Moody R. A.Life after life. Covington, GA: Mockingbird Books; 1975:.
138. Morse M.Transformed by the light: The powerful effect of near-death experiences on people's lives. New York, NY: Villard; 1992:.
139. Motyl M.,Hart J.,Pyszczynski T.,Weise D.,Maxfield M.,Siedel A.Subtle priming of shared human experiences eliminates threat-induced negativity toward Arabs, immigrants, and peacemaking.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2011;47:1179-1184.
140. Murray S. L.,Holmes J. G.,Griffin D. W.Self-esteem and the quest for felt security: How perceived regard regulates attachment processes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;78:478-498.
141. Nakonezny P. A.,Reddick R.,Rodgers J. L.Did divorces decline after the Oklahoma City bombing?.Journal of Marriage and Family. 2004;66:90-100.
142. Neuberg S. L.,Newsom J. T.Personal need for structure: Individual differences in the desire for simple structure.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;65:113-131.
143. Niemiec C. P.,Brown K. W.,Kashdan T. B.,Cozzolino P. J.,Breen W. E.,Levesque-Bristol C.,Ryan R.Being present in the face of existential threat: The role of trait mindfulness in reducing defensive responses to mortality salience.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2010;99:344-365.
144. Noyes R.Attitude change following near-death experiences.Psychiatry. 1980;43:234-242.
145. Peterson C.,Seligman M. E. P.Character strengths before and after September 11.Psychological Science. 2003;14:381-384.
146. Pyszczynski T.,Abdollahi A.,Solomon S.,Greenberg J.,Cohen F.,Weise D.Mortality salience, martyrdom, and military might: The Great Satan versus the Axis of Evil.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2006;32:525-537.
147. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.Advances in experimental social psychology. Berkowitz L., ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1987:297-340.
148. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Arndt J.Handbook of self and identity. Leary M.Tangney J., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; in press:.
149. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Goldenberg J.Handbook of self and identity. Leary M. R.Tangney J. P., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2003:314-343.
150. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.A dual-process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory.Psychological Review. 1999;106:835-845.
151. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.Toward a dialectical analysis of growth and defensive motives.Psychological Inquiry. 2000;11:301-305.
152. Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Maxfield M.On the unique psychological import of human awareness of mortality: Theme and variations.Psychological Inquiry. 2006;17:328-356.
153. Pyszczynski T.,Kesebir P.Anxiety buffer disruption theory: A terror management account of posttraumatic stress disorder.Anxiety, Stress, & Coping: An International Journal. 2011;24:3-26.
154. PyszczynskiT.MotylM. S.VailK. E.HirschbergerG.ArndtJ.KesebirP. (2011). A collateral advantage of drawing attention to the problem of global warming: Increased support for peacemaking and decreased support for war. Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.
155. Pyszczynski T.,Rothschild Z.,Abdollahi A.Terrorism, violence, and hope for peace: A terror management perspective.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2008;17:318-322.
156. Pyszczynski T.,Wicklund R. A.,Floresky S.,Gauch G.,Koch S.,Solomon S.,Greenberg J.Whistling in the dark: Exaggerated estimates of social consensus in response to incidental reminders of mortality.Psychological Science. 1996;7:332-336.
157. Rank O.Will therapy and truth and reality. New York, NY: Knopf; 1950:.
158. Rank O.Art and artist: Creative urge and personality development. New York, NY: Knopf; 1989:.
159. Rasmussen H. N.,Wrosch C.,Scheier M. F.,Carver C. S.Self-regulation processes and health: The importance of optimism and goal adjustment.Journal of Personality. 2006;74:1721-1747.
160. Ring K.Life at death: A scientific investigation of the near-death experience. New York, NY: Coward, McCann, & Geohegan; 1980:.
161. Ring K.Amazing grace: The near-death experience as a compensatory gift.Journal of Near-Death Studies. 1991;10:11-39.
162. Rosenblatt A.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Pyszczynski T.,Lyon D.Evidence for terror management theory I: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who violate or uphold cultural values.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;57:681-690.
163. Rothschild Z.,Abdollahi A.,Pyszczynski T.Does peace have a prayer? The effect of mortality salience, compassionate values, and religious fundamentalism on hostility toward out-groups.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2009;45:816-827.
164. Routledge C.,Arndt J.Self-sacrifice as self-defense: Mortality salience increases efforts to affirm a symbolic immortal self at the expense of the physical self.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2008;38:531-541.
165. Routledge C.,Arndt J.Creative terror management: Creativity as a facilitator of cultural exploration after mortality salience.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2009;35:493-505.
166. Routledge C.,Arndt J.,Goldenberg J. L.A time to tan: Proximal and distal effects of mortality salience on sun exposure intentions.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2004;30:1347-1358.
167. Routledge C.,Arndt J.,Sheldon K. M.Task engagement after mortality salience: The effects of creativity, conformity, and connectedness on worldview defense.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2004;34:477-487.
168. Routledge C.,Arndt J.,Vess M.,Sheldon K. M.The life and death of creativity: The effects of mortality salience on self and social directed creative expression.Motivation and Emotion. 2008;32:331-338.
169. Routledge C.,Juhl J.When death thoughts lead to death fears: Mortality salience increases death anxiety for individuals who lack meaning in life.Cognition and Emotion. 2010;24:848-854.
170. Routledge C.,Ostafin B.,Juhl J.,Sedikides C.,Cathey C.,Liao J.Adjusting to death: The effects of mortality salience and self-esteem on psychological well-being, growth motivation, and maladaptive behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2010;99:897-916.
171. Runco M. A.Creativity.Annual Review of Psychology. 2004;55:657-687.
172. Ryan R. M.,Deci E. L.The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept.Psychological Inquiry. 2000;11:319-338.
173. Scheier M. F.,Carver C. S.Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.Health Psychology. 1985;4:219-247.
174. Schimel J.,Hayes J.,Williams T. J.,Jahrig J.Is death really the worm at the core? Converging evidence that worldview threat increases death-thought accessibility.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2007;92:789-803.
175. Schimel J.,Simon L.,Greenberg J.,Pyszczynski T.,Solomon S.,Waxmonski J.,Arndt J.Support for a functional perspective on stereotypes: Evidence that mortality salience enhances stereotypic thinking and preferences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:905-926.
176. Schimel J.,Wohl M.,Williams T.Terror management and trait empathy: Evidence that mortality salience promotes reactions of forgiveness among people with high trait empathy.Motivation and Emotion. 2006;30:214-224.
177. Schmeichel B. J.,Gailliot M. T.,Filardo E.,McGregor I.,Gitter S.,Baumeister R. F.Terror management theory and self-esteem revisited: The roles of implicit and explicit self-esteem in mortality salience effects.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;96:1077-1087.
178. Schwartz S. H.Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M. P., ed. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1992:1-65.
179. Sheldon K. M.Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward. Sheldon K. M.Kashdan T.Steger M., ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2011:421-429.
180. Sheldon K. M.,Kasser T.Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving.Motivation and Emotion. 2008;32:37-45.
181. Sheldon K. M.,King L.Why positive psychology is necessary.American Psychologist. 2001;56:216-217.
182. Sherif M.In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin; 1966:.
183. Sherif M.,Harvey O. J.,White B. J.,Hood W. R.,Sherif C. W.Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Book Exchange; 1961:.
184. Simon L.,Arndt J.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Pyszczynski T.Terror management and meaning: Evidence that the opportunity to defend the worldview in response to mortality salience increases the meaningfulness of life in the mildly depressed.Journal of Personality. 1998;66:359-382.
185. Simon L.,Greenberg J.,Arndt J.,Pyszczynski T.,Clement R.,Solomon S.Perceived consensus, uniqueness, and terror management: Compensatory responses to threats to inclusion and distinctiveness following mortality salience.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1997;23:1055-1065.
186. Simonton D. K.Oxford handbook of positive psychology. 2009). Creativity. In LopezS. J.SnyderC. R. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Lopez S. J.Snyder C. R., ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009:.
187. SteinhauserP. (2008). Poll: Obama seen as more compassionate than McCain. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/10/07/compassion.poll/.
188. Strachan E.,Schimel J.,Arndt J.,Williams T.,Solomon S.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.Terror mismanagement: Evidence that mortality salience exacerbates phobic and compulsive behaviors.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2007;33:1137-1151.
189. Taku K.,Calhoun L. G.,Cann A.,Tedeschi R. G.The role of rumination in the coexistence of distress and posttraumatic growth among bereaved Japanese university students.Death Studies. 2008;32:428-444.
190. Taubman Ben-Ari O.The effect of death reminders on reckless driving: A terror management perspective.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2000;9:196-199.
191. Taubman Ben-Ari O.,Findler L.,Mikulincer M.The effects of mortality salience on relationship strivings and beliefs: The moderating role of attachment style.British Journal of Social Psychology. 2002;41:419-441.
192. Taubman Ben-Ari O.,Florian V.,Mikulincer M.The impact of mortality salience on reckless driving: A test of terror management mechanisms.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;76:35-45.
193. Tedeschi R. G.,Calhoun L. G.Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence.Psychological Inquiry. 2004;15:1-18.
194. Thompson M. M.,Naccarato M. E.,Parker K. C.,Moskowitz G. B.Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton Symposium on the Legacy and Future of Social Cognition. Moskowitz G. B., ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2001:19-39.
195. Tillich P.The courage to be. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1971:.
196. Tolkien J. R. R.The hobbit. Boston, MA: Houghton; 1937:.
197. Toussaint L. L.,Peddle N.,Cheadle A.,Sellu A.,Luskin F.Mass trauma and emotional healing around the world: Rituals and practices for resilience and meaning-making Vol. 2. Human-made disasters. Kalayjian A.Eugene D.Kalayjian A.Eugene D., ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO; 2010:251-267.
198. Triplett K. N.,Tedeschi R. G.,Cann A.,Calhoun L. G.,Reeve C. L.Posttraumatic growth, meaning in life, and life satisfaction in response to trauma.Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2011;:.
199. Vail K. E.,Arndt J.,Motyl M.,Pyszczynski T.Compassionate values and presidential politics: Mortality salience, compassionate values and support for Barack Obama and John McCain in the 2008 Presidential election.Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. 2009;9:255-268.
200. VailK. E.RampyN.ArndtJ.PopeJ. B.PinelE. (2011). Intolerance of intolerance: Mortality salience, tolerant values, and attitudes toward an anti-Muslim leader. Unpublished manuscript, University of Missouri-Columbia.
201. Vail K. E.,Rothschild Z. K.,Weise D.,Solomon S.,Pyszczynski T.,Greenberg J.A terror management analysis of the psychological functions of religion.Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2010;14:84-94.
202. Vess M.,Arndt J.The nature of death and the death of nature: The impact of mortality salience on environmental concern.Journal of Research in Personality. 2008;:1376-1380.
203. Vess M.,Arndt J.,Cox C. R.,Routledge C.,Goldenberg J. L.The terror management of medical decisions: The effect of mortality salience and religious fundamentalism on support for faith-based medical intervention.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;97:334-350.
204. Vess M.,Routledge C.,Landau M. J.,Arndt J.The dynamics of death and meaning: The effects of death-relevant cognitions and personal need for structure on perceptions of meaning in life.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;97:728-744.
205. Wegner D. M.,Smart L.Deep cognitive activation: A new approach to the unconscious.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1997;65:984-995.
206. Weise D. R.,Pyszczynski T.,Cox C. R.,Arndt J.,Greenberg J.,Solomon S.,Kosloff S.Interpersonal politics: The role of terror management and attachment processes in shaping political preferences.Psychological Science. 2008;19:448-455.
207. Wilson T.,Milosevic A.,Carroll M.,Hart K.,Hibbard S.Physical health status in relation to self-forgiveness and other-forgiveness in healthy college students.Journal of Health Psychology. 2008;13:798-803.
208. Wisman A.,Goldenberg J. L.From the grave to the cradle: Evidence that mortality salience engenders a desire for offspring.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005;89:46-61.
209. Wisman A.,Koole S.Hiding in the crowd: Can mortality salience promote affiliation with others who oppose one's worldviews?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:511-526.
210. Wong P. T. P.,Tomer. A.Beyond terror and denial: The positive psychology of death acceptance.Death Studies. 2011;35:99-106.
211. Yalom I. D.Existential psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1980:.
212. Zhou X.,Liu J.,Chen C.,Yu Z.Do children transcend death? An examination of the terror management function of offspring.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 2008;49:413-418.