Epigenetics: Genetics versus life experiences

Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences

Volumn 9, Issue , 2012, Pages 317-340

  Elia, Josephine ^a   Laracy, Seth ^a   Allen, Jeremy ^a   Nissley Tsiopinis, Jenelle ^a   Borgmann Winter, Karin ^a  

^a CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PHILADELPHIA   (United States)

Author keywords

ADHD; DNA methylation; Epigentics; Gene transcription; Gene environment

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; ATOMOXETINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; METHYLPHENIDATE; NORADRENALIN; POTASSIUM CHANNEL HERG; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BRAIN STEM; CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE; CINGULATE GYRUS; DNA METHYLATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENOME IMPRINTING; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HABENULA; HUMAN; IMMEDIATE EARLY GENE; MATERNAL SMOKING; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRENATAL DRUG EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PSYCHOSOCIAL DISORDER; RAPHE NUCLEUS; THALAMUS; EPIGENETICS; GENETIC EPIGENESIS; GENETICS; LIFE EVENT; METABOLISM;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; DNA METHYLATION; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; EPIGENOMICS; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS;

EID: 84865355750     PISSN: 18663370     EISSN: 18663389     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/7854_2011_144     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Adriani W, Leo D, Greco D, Rea M, di Porzio U, Laviola G, Perrone-Capano C (2006a) Methylphenidate administration to adolescent rats determines plastic changes on rewardrelated behavior and striatal gene expression. Neuropsychopharmacology 31:1946-1956
2. Adriani W, Leo D, Guarino M, Natoli A, Di Consiglio E, De Angelis G, Traina E, Testai E, Perrone-Capano C, Laviola G (2006b) Short-term effects of adolescent methylphenidate exposure on brain striatal gene expression and sexual/endocrine parameters in male rats. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1074:52-73
3. Altink ME, Arias-Vasquez A, Franke B, Slaats-Willemse DI, Buschgens CJ, Rommelse NN, Fliers EA, Anney R, Brookes KJ, Chen W, Gill M, Mulligan A, Sonuga-Barke E, Thompson M, Sergeant JA, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar JK (2008) The dopamine receptor D4 7-repeat allele and prenatal smoking in ADHD-affected children and their unaffected siblings: no geneenvironment interaction. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49:1053-1060
4. Amir RE, Van den Veyver IB, Wan M, Tran CQ, Francke U, Zoghbi HY (1999) Rett syndrome is caused by mutations in X-linked MECP2, encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2. Nat Genet 23:185-188
5. Andres RL, Day MC (2000) Perinatal complications associated with maternal tobacco use. Semin Neonatol 5:231-241
6. Andrews SC, Wood MD, Tunster SJ, Barton SC, Surani MA, John RM (2007) Cdkn1c (p57Kip2) is the major regulator of embryonic growth within its imprinted domain on mouse distal chromosome 7. BMC Dev Biol 7:53
7. Anney RJ, Hawi Z, Sheehan K, Mulligan A, Pinto C, Brookes KJ, Xu X, Zhou K, Franke B, Buitelaar J, Vermeulen SH, Banaschewski T, Sonuga-Barke E, Ebstein R, Manor I, Miranda A, Mulas F, Oades RD, Roeyers H, Rommelse N, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Steinhausen HC, Taylor E, Thompson M, Asherson P, Faraone SV, Gill M (2008) Parent of origin effects in attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): analysis of data from the international multicenter ADHD genetics (IMAGE) program. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:1495-1500
8. Asbury K, Dunn JF, Plomin R (2006) Birthweight-discordance and differences in early parenting relate to monozygotic twin differences in behaviour problems and academic achievement at age 7. Dev Sci 9:F22-F31
9. Baccarelli A, Bollati V (2009) Epigenetics and environmental chemicals. Curr Opin Pediatr 21:243-251
10. Badiani A, Oates MM, Day HE, Watson SJ, Akil H, Robinson TE (1998) Amphetamine-induced behavior, dopamine release, and c-fos mRNA expression: modulation by environmental novelty. J Neurosci 18:10579-10593
11. Banerjee E, Sinha S, Chatterjee A, Gangopadhyay PK, Singh M, Nandagopal K (2006) A familybased study of Indian subjects from Kolkata reveals allelic association of the serotonin transporter intron-2 (STin2) polymorphism and attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141B:361-366
12. Bannon MJ, Whitty CJ (1997) Age-related and regional differences in dopamine transporter mRNA expression in human midbrain. Neurology 48:969-977
13. Barker MJ, Benitez JG, Ternullo S, Juhl GA (2004) Acute oxcarbazepine and atomoxetine overdose with quetiapine. Vet Hum Toxicol 46:130-132
14. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K (2006) Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 45:192-202
15. Baumgardner TL, Reiss AL, Freund LS, Abrams MT (1995) Specification of the neurobehavioral phenotype in males with fragile X syndrome. Pediatrics 95:744-752
16. Berger SL (2007) The complex language of chromatin regulation during transcription. Nature 447:407-412
17. Bhatara V, Loudenberg R, Ellis R (2006) Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: an exploratory study. J Atten Disord 9:515-522
18. Boikess SR, Marshall JF (2008) A sensitizing d-amphetamine regimen induces long-lasting spinophilin protein upregulation in the rat striatum and limbic forebrain. Eur J Neurosci 28:2099-2107
19. Boikess SR, O'Dell SJ, Marshall JF (2010) A sensitizing d-amphetamine dose regimen induces long-lasting spinophilin and VGLUT1 protein upregulation in the rat diencephalon. Neurosci Lett 469:49-54
20. Brandon CL, Steiner H (2003) Repeated methylphenidate treatment in adolescent rats alters gene regulation in the striatum. Eur J Neurosci 18:1584-1592
21. Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, Lanphear BP (2006) Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children. Environ Health Perspect 114:1904-1909
22. Brookes KJ, Mill J, Guindalini C, Curran S, Xu X, Knight J, Chen CK, Huang YS, Sethna V, Taylor E, Chen W, Breen G, Asherson P (2006) A common haplotype of the dopamine transporter gene associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and interacting with maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:74-81
23. Brophy K, Hawi Z, Kirley A, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (2002) Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): evidence of linkage and association in the Irish population. Mol Psychiatry 7:913-917
24. Carr KD, Kutchukhidze N (2000) Chronic food restriction increases fos-like immunoreactivity (FLI) induced in rat forebrain by intraventricular amphetamine. Brain Res 861:88-96
25. Cattanach BM, Kirk M (1985) Differential activity of maternally and paternally derived chromosome regions in mice. Nature 315:496-498
26. Chandler VL (2007) Paramutation: from maize to mice. Cell 128:641-645
27. Cho SC, Kim BN, Hong YC, Shin MS, Yoo HJ, Kim JW, Bhang SY, Cho IH, Kim HW (2010) Effect of environmental exposure to lead and tobacco smoke on inattentive and hyperactive symptoms and neurocognitive performance in children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51:1050-1057
28. Colussi-Mas J, Geisler S et al (2007) Activation of afferents to the ventral tegmental area in response to acute amphetamine: a double-labelling study. Eur J Neurosci 26(4):1011-1025
29. Dalia A, Wallace LJ (1995) Amphetamine induction of c-fos in the nucleus accumbens is not inhibited by glutamate antagonists. Brain Res 694:299-307
30. Day NL, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Cornelius MD (2000) Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers' behavior. J Dev Behav Pediatr 21:180-188
31. Day HE, Badiani A, Uslaner JM, Oates MM, Vittoz NM, Robinson TE, Watson SJ Jr, Akil H (2001) Environmental novelty differentially affects c-fos mRNA expression induced by amphetamine or cocaine in subregions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala. J Neurosci 21:732-740
32. Derks EM, Hudziak JJ, Dolan CV, van Beijsterveldt TC, Verhulst FC, Boomsma DI (2008) Genetic and environmental influences on the relation between attention problems and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Genet 38:11-23
33. Dygalo NN, Bannova AV, Kalinina TS, Shishkina GT (2004) Clonidine increases caspase-3 mRNA level and DNA fragmentation in the developing rat brainstem. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 152:225-231
34. Eubig PA, Aguiar A, Schantz SL (2010) Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Environ Health Perspect 118:1654-1667
35. Feinberg AP (2008) Epigenetics at the epicenter of modern medicine. JAMA 299:1345-1350
36. Feinberg AP, Tycko B (2004) The history of cancer epigenetics. Nat Rev Cancer 4:143-153
37. French NP, Hagan R, Evans SF, Mullan A, Newnham JP (2004) Repeated antenatal corticosteroids: effects on cerebral palsy and childhood behavior. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:588-595
38. Fried PA, Makin JE (1987) Neonatal behavioural correlates of prenatal exposure to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol in a low risk population. Neurotoxicol Teratol 9:1-7
39. Fryer SL, McGee CL, Matt GE, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2007) Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics 119:e733-e741
40. Goto T, Monk M (1998) Regulation of X-chromosome inactivation in development in mice and humans. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 62:362-378
41. Graybiel AM, Moratalla R, Robertson HA (1990) Amphetamine and cocaine induce drug-specific activation of the c-fos gene in striosome-matrix compartments and limbic subdivisions of the striatum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87:6912-6916
42. Halmoy A, Johansson S, Winge I, McKinney JA, Knappskog PM, Haavik J (2010) Attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder symptoms in offspring of mothers with impaired serotonin production. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67:1033-1043
43. Hawi Z, Foley D, Kirley A, McCarron M, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (2001) Dopa decarboxylase gene polymorphisms and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): no evidence for association in the Irish population. Mol Psychiatry 6:420-424
44. Hawi Z, Dring M, Kirley A, Foley D, Kent L, Craddock N, Asherson P, Curran S, Gould A, Richards S, Lawson D, Pay H, Turic D, Langley K, Owen M, O'Donovan M, Thapar A, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (2002) Serotonergic system and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a potential susceptibility locus at the 5-HT(1B) receptor gene in 273 nuclear families from a multi-centre sample. Mol Psychiatry 7:718-725
45. Hawi Z, Segurado R, Conroy J, Sheehan K, Lowe N, Kirley A, Shields D, Fitzgerald M, Gallagher L, Gill M (2005) Preferential transmission of paternal alleles at risk genes in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Am J Hum Genet 77:958-965
46. Hay D, Bennett KS, McStephen M, Rooney R, Levy F (2004) Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in twins: a developmental genetic analysis. Aust J Psychol 56:99-107
47. Hay DA, Bennett KS, Levy F, Sergeant J, Swanson J (2007) A twin study of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder dimensions rated by the strengths and weaknesses of ADHD-symptoms and normal-behavior (SWAN) scale. Biol Psychiatry 61:700-705
48. Heal DJ, Smith SL, Findling RL (2011) ADHD: Current and future therapeutics. Curr Topics Behav Neurosci DOI 10.1007/7854_2011_125
49. Hollick JB, Dorweiler JE, Chandler VL (1997) Paramutation and related allelic interactions. Trends Genet 13:302-308
50. Hope BT (1998) Cocaine and the AP-1 transcription factor complex. Ann N Y Acad Sci 844:1-6
51. Huizink AC, Mulder EJ (2006) Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30:24-41
52. Hultman CM, Torrang A, Tuvblad C, Cnattingius S, Larsson JO, Lichtenstein P (2007) Birth weight and attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms in childhood and early adolescence: a prospective Swedish twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:370-377
53. Irizarry RA, Ladd-Acosta C, Carvalho B, Wu H, Brandenburg SA, Jeddeloh JA, Wen B, Feinberg AP (2008) Comprehensive high-throughput arrays for relative methylation (CHARM). Genome Res 18:780-790
54. Jacobson SW, Carr LG, Croxford J, Sokol RJ, Li TK, Jacobson JL (2006) Protective effects of the alcohol dehydrogenase-ADH1B allele in children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy. J Pediatr 148:30-37
55. Jirtle RL, Skinner MK (2007) Environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility. Nat Rev Genet 8:253-262
56. Johansson B, Lindstrom K, Fredholm BB (1994) Differences in the regional and cellular localization of c-fos messenger RNA induced by amphetamine, cocaine and caffeine in the rat. Neuroscience 59:837-849
57. Kahn RS, Khoury J, Nichols WC, Lanphear BP (2003) Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. J Pediatr 143:104-110
58. Kapoor A, Petropoulos S, Matthews SG (2008) Fetal programming of hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis function and behavior by synthetic glucocorticoids. Brain Res Rev 57:586-595
59. Karin M (1990) Too many transcription factors: positive and negative interactions. New Biol 2:126-131
60. Kent L, Green E, Hawi Z, Kirley A, Dudbridge F, Lowe N, Raybould R, Langley K, Bray N, Fitzgerald M, Owen MJ, O'Donovan MC, Gill M, Thapar A, Craddock N (2005) Association of the paternally transmitted copy of common Valine allele of the Val66Met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene with susceptibility to ADHD. Mol Psychiatry 10:939-943
61. Kiehn J, Lacerda AE, Brown AM (1999) Pathways of HERG inactivation. Am J Physiol 277: H199-H210
62. Kim JW, Waldman ID, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Doyle AE, Purcell S, Arbeitman L, Fagerness J, Sklar P, Smoller JW (2007) Investigation of parent-of-origin effects in ADHD candidate genes. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 144B:776-780
63. Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P (2009) Methylphenidate-induced dendritic spine formation and DeltaFosB expression in nucleus accumbens. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:2915-2920
64. Knopik VS, Sparrow EP, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Hudziak JJ, Reich W, Slutske WS, Grant JD, McLaughlin TL, Todorov A, Todd RD, Heath AC (2005) Contributions of parental alcoholism, prenatal substance exposure, and genetic transmission to child ADHD risk: a female twin study. Psychol Med 35:625-635
65. Knopik VS, Heath AC, Jacob T, Slutske WS, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Waldron M, Martin NG (2006) Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD: disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Psychol Med 36:1461-1471
66. Koda K, Ago Y, Cong Y, Kita Y, Takuma K, Matsuda T (2010) Effects of acute and chronic administration of atomoxetine and methylphenidate on extracellular levels of noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin in the prefrontal cortex and striatum of mice. J Neurochem 114:259-270
67. Konradi C, Leveque JC, Hyman SE (1996) Amphetamine and dopamine-induced immediate early gene expression in striatal neurons depends on postsynaptic NMDA receptors and calcium. J Neurosci 16:4231-4239
68. Kotimaa AJ, Moilanen I, Taanila A, Ebeling H, Smalley SL, McGough JJ, Hartikainen AL, Jarvelin MR (2003) Maternal smoking and hyperactivity in 8-year-old children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:826-833
69. Kuntsi J, Rijsdijk F, Ronald A, Asherson P, Plomin R (2005) Genetic influences on the stability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms from early to middle childhood. Biol Psychiatry 57:647-654
70. Kustanovich V, Merriman B, McGough J, McCracken JT, Smalley SL, Nelson SF (2003) Biased paternal transmission of SNAP-25 risk alleles in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 8:309-315
71. Langley K, Rice F, van den Bree MB, Thapar A (2005) Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatr 57:359-371
72. Larsson JO, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P (2004) Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change of ADHD symptoms between 8 and 13 years of age: a longitudinal twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 43:1267-1275
73. Latchman DS (1997) Transcription factors: an overview. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 29:1305-1312
74. Laucht M, Skowronek MH, Becker K, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Schulze TG, Rietschel M (2007) Interacting effects of the dopamine transporter gene and psychosocial adversity on attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder symptoms among 15-year-olds from a high-risk community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:585-590
75. Laurin N, Feng Y, Ickowicz A, Pathare T, Malone M, Tannock R, Schachar R, Kennedy JL, Barr CL (2007) No preferential transmission of paternal alleles at risk genes in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 12:226-229
76. Laurin N, Ickowicz A, Pathare T, Malone M, Tannock R, Schachar R, Kennedy JL, Barr CL (2008) Investigation of the G protein subunit Galphaolf gene (GNAL) in attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatr Res 42:117-124
77. Leff S, Costigan TE, Power TJ (2004) Using participatory action research to develop a playground-based prevention program. J Sch Psychol 42:3-21
78. Lehn H, Derks EM, Hudziak JJ, Heutink P, van Beijsterveldt TC, Boomsma DI (2007) Attention problems and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in discordant and concordant monozygotic twins: evidence of environmental mediators. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:83-91
79. Levenson JM, Sweatt JD (2005) Epigenetic mechanisms in memory formation. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:108-118
80. Li E (2002) Chromatin modification and epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development. Nat Rev Genet 3:662-673
81. Li Y, Kolb B, Robinson TE (2003) The location of persistent amphetamine-induced changes in the density of dendritic spines on medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:1082-1085
82. Lillrank SM, Lipska BK, Bachus SE, Wood GK, Weinberger DR (1996) Amphetamine-induced c-fos mRNA expression is altered in rats with neonatal ventral hippocampal damage. Synapse 23:292-301
83. Lim JH, Booker AB, Fallon JR (2005) Regulating fragile X gene transcription in the brain and beyond. J Cell Physiol 205:170-175
84. Lin JS, Hou Y, Jouvet M (1996) Potential brain neuronal targets for amphetamine-, methylphenidate-, and modafinil-induced wakefulness, evidenced by c-fos immunocytochemistry in the cat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:14128-14133
85. Linnet KM, Wisborg K, Obel C, Secher NJ, Thomsen PH, Agerbo E, Henriksen TB (2005) Smoking during pregnancy and the risk for hyperkinetic disorder in offspring. Pediatrics 116:462-467
86. Maughan B, Taylor A, Caspi A, Moffitt TE (2004) Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems: testing genetic and environmental explanations of the association. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61:836-843
87. McArthur S, McHale E, Gillies GE (2007) The size and distribution of midbrain dopaminergic populations are permanently altered by perinatal glucocorticoid exposure in a sex-region-and time-specific manner. Neuropsychopharmacology 32:1462-1476
88. McIntosh DE, Mulkins RS, Dean RS (1995) Utilization of maternal perinatal risk indicators in the differential diagnosis of ADHD and UADD children. Int J Neurosci 81:35-46
89. McLoughlin G, Ronald A, Kuntsi J, Asherson P, Plomin R (2007) Genetic support for the dual nature of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: substantial genetic overlap between the inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive components. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:999-1008
90. Mick E, Faraone SV (2008) Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 17:261-284, vii-viii
91. Mick E, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Sayer J, Kleinman S (2002) Case-control study of attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use during pregnancy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:378-385
92. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Chen L, Jones J (1996) Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children? Am J Psychiatry 153:1138-1142
93. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Chen L, Jones J (1997) Further evidence of an association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cigarette smoking. Findings from a highrisk sample of siblings. Am J Addict 6:205-217
94. Mill J, Richards S, Knight J, Curran S, Taylor E, Asherson P (2004) Haplotype analysis of SNAP- 25 suggests a role in the aetiology of ADHD. Mol Psychiatry 9:801-810
95. Miyamoto S, Snouwaert JN, Koller BH, Moy SS, Lieberman JA, Duncan GE (2004) Amphetamine-induced Fos is reduced in limbic cortical regions but not in the caudate or accumbens in a genetic model of NMDA receptor hypofunction. Neuropsychopharmacology 29:2180-2188
96. Naeye RL, Peters EC (1984) Mental development of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 64:601-607
97. Neuman RJ, Lobos E et al (2006) Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biol Psychiatry
98. Neuman RJ, Lobos E, Reich W, Henderson CA, Sun LW, Todd RD (2007) Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biol Psychiatry 61:1320-1328
99. Nigg JT, Breslau N (2007) Prenatal smoking exposure, low birth weight, and disruptive behavior disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46:362-369
100. O'Callaghan MJ, Williams GM, Andersen MJ, Bor W, Najman JM (1997) Obstetric and perinatal factors as predictors of child behaviour at 5 years. J Paediatr Child Health 33:497-503
101. O'Connor TG, Heron J, Golding J, Beveridge M, Glover V (2002) Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years. Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Br J Psychiatry 180:502-508
102. Orlebeke JF, Knol DL, Verhulst FC (1999) Child behavior problems increased by maternal smoking during pregnancy. Arch Environ Health 54:15-19
103. Ostrander MM, Richtand NM, Hermann JP (2003a) Stress and amphetamine induce Fos expression in medial prefrontal cortex neurons containing glucocorticoid receptors. Brain Res 990:209-214
104. Ostrander MM, Badiani A, Day HE, Norton CS, Watson SJ, Akil H, Robinson TE (2003b) Environmental context and drug history modulate amphetamine-induced c-fos mRNA expression in the basal ganglia, central extended amygdala, and associated limbic forebrain. Neuroscience 120:551-571
105. O'Sullivan JB, Ryan KM, Curtin NM, Harkin A, Connor TJ (2009) Noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors limit neuroinflammation in rat cortex following a systemic inflammatory challenge: implications for depression and neurodegeneration. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 12:687-699
106. Ouellet-Morin I, Wigg KG, Feng Y, Dionne G, Robaey P, Brendgen M, Vitaro F, Simard L, Schachar R, Tremblay RE, Perusse D, Boivin M, Barr CL (2008) Association of the dopamine transporter gene and ADHD symptoms in a Canadian population-based sample of same-age twins. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:1442-1449
107. Palmer AA, Brown AS, Keegan D, Siska LD, Susser E, Rotrosen J, Butler PD (2008) Prenatal protein deprivation alters dopamine-mediated behaviors and dopaminergic and glutamatergic receptor binding. Brain Res 1237:62-74
108. Parelkar NK, Jiang Q, Chu XP, Guo ML, Mao LM, Wang JQ (2009) Amphetamine alters Rasguanine nucleotide-releasing factor expression in the rat striatum in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol 619:50-56
109. Penner MR, McFadyen MP, Pinaud R, Carrey N, Robertson HA, Brown RE (2002) Age-related distribution of c-fos expression in the striatum of CD-1 mice after acute methylphenidate administration. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 135:71-77
110. Petersohn D, Thiel G (1996) Role of zinc-finger proteins Sp1 and zif268/egr-1 in transcriptional regulation of the human synaptobrevin II gene. Eur J Biochem 239:827-834
111. Polderman TJ, Derks EM, Hudziak JJ, Verhulst FC, Posthuma D, Boomsma DI (2007) Across the continuum of attention skills: a twin study of the SWAN ADHD rating scale. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48:1080-1087
112. Price TS, Simonoff E, Asherson P, Curran S, Kuntsi J, Waldman I, Plomin R (2005) Continuity and change in preschool ADHD symptoms: longitudinal genetic analysis with contrast effects. Behav Genet 35:121-132
113. Quist JF, Barr CL, Schachar R, Roberts W, Malone M, Tannock R, Basile VS, Beitchman J, Kennedy JL (2003) The serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 8:98-102
114. Reik W, Dean W, Walter J (2001) Epigenetic reprogramming in mammalian development. Science 293:1089-1093
115. Rietveld MJ, Hudziak JJ, Bartels M, van Beijsterveldt CE, Boomsma DI (2004) Heritability of attention problems in children: longitudinal results from a study of twins, age 3 to 12. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45:577-588
116. Robertson KD (2005) DNA methylation and human disease. Nat Rev Genet 6:597-610
117. Robinson TE, Kolb B (1997) Persistent structural modifications in nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex neurons produced by previous experience with amphetamine. J Neurosci 17:8491-8497
118. Rodriguez A, Bohlin G (2005) Are maternal smoking and stress during pregnancy related to ADHD symptoms in children? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46:246-254
119. Rotllant D, Marquez C, Nadal R, Armario A (2010) The brain pattern of c-fos induction by two doses of amphetamine suggests different brain processing pathways and minor contribution of behavioural traits. Neuroscience 168:691-705
120. Sarge KD, Park-Sarge OK (2005) Gene bookmarking: keeping the pages open. Trends Biochem Sci 30:605-610
121. Saudino KJ, Ronald A, Plomin R (2005) The etiology of behavior problems in 7-year-old twins: substantial genetic influence and negligible shared environmental influence for parent ratings and ratings by same and different teachers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 33:113-130
122. Sawant S, Daviss SR (2004) Seizures and prolonged QTc with atomoxetine overdose. Am J Psychiatry 161:757
123. Scahill L, Schwab-Stone M(2000) Epidemiology of ADHD in school-age children. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 9:541-555, vii
124. Scherer D, Hassel D, Bloehs R, Zitron E, von Lowenstern K, Seyler C, Thomas D, Konrad F, Burgers HF, Seemann G, Rottbauer W, Katus HA, Karle CA, Scholz EP (2009) Selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine directly blocks hERG currents. Br J Pharmacol 156:226-236
125. Secker-Walker RH, Vacek PM, Flynn BS, Mead PB (1997) Smoking in pregnancy, exhaled carbon monoxide, and birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 89:648-653
126. Sharp WS, Gottesman RF, Greenstein DK, Ebens CL, Rapoport JL, Castellanos FX (2003) Monozygotic twins discordant for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: ascertainment and clinical characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:93-97
127. Shishkina GT, Kalinina TS, Dygalo NN (2004) Attenuation of alpha2A-adrenergic receptor expression in neonatal rat brain by RNA interference or antisense oligonucleotide reduced anxiety in adulthood. Neuroscience 129:521-528
128. Shumay E, Fowler JS, Volkow ND (2010) Genomic features of the human dopamine transporter gene and its potential epigenetic States: implications for phenotypic diversity. PLoS One 5: e11067
129. Smoller JW, Biederman J, Arbeitman L, Doyle AE, Fagerness J, Perlis RH, Sklar P, Faraone SV (2006) Association between the 5HT1B receptor gene (HTR1B) and the inattentive subtype of ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 59:460-467
130. Snyder-Keller AM (1991) Striatal c-fos induction by drugs and stress in neonatally dopaminedepleted rats given nigral transplants: importance of NMDA activation and relevance to sensitization phenomena. Exp Neurol 113:155-165
131. Son GH, Chung S, Geum D, Kang SS, Choi WS, Kim K, Choi S (2007) Hyperactivity and alteration of the midbrain dopaminergic system in maternally stressed male mice offspring. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 352:823-829
132. Swanson LW (1982) The projections of the ventral tegmental area and adjacent regions: a combined fluorescent retrograde tracer and immunofluorescence study in the rat. Brain Res Bull 9:321-353
133. Swanson JM, Volkow ND (2002) Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of stimulants: implications for the design of new treatments for ADHD. Behav Brain Res 130:73-78
134. Thapar A, Fowler T, Rice F, Scourfield J, van den Bree M, Thomas H, Harold G, Hay D (2003) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in offspring. Am J Psychiatry 160:1985-1989
135. Thomas MC, Chiang CM (2006) The general transcription machinery and general cofactors. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 41:105-178
136. Todd RD, Neuman RJ (2007) Gene-environment interactions in the development of combined type ADHD: evidence for a synapse-based model. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 144B:971-975
137. Trinh JV, Nehrenberg DL, Jacobsen JP, Caron MG, Wetsel WC (2003) Differential psychostimulant-induced activation of neural circuits in dopamine transporter knockout and wild type mice. Neuroscience 118:297-310
138. Tsankova N, Renthal W, Kumar A, Nestler EJ (2007) Epigenetic regulation in psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 8:355-367
139. van derValk JC, Verhulst FC, Neale MC, Boomsma DI (1998) Longitudinal genetic analysis of problem behaviors in biologically related and unrelated adoptees. Behav Genet 28:365-380
140. Vataeva LA, Kudrin VS, Vershinina EA, Mosin VM, Tiul'kova EI, Otellin VA (2007) Behavioral alteration in the adult rats prenatally exposed to para-chlorophenylalanine. Brain Res 1169:9-16
141. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Ding YS (2005) Imaging the effects of methylphenidate on brain dopamine: new model on its therapeutic actions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57:1410-1415
142. Vucetic Z, Totoki K, Schoch H, Whitaker KW, Hill-Smith T, Lucki I, Reyes TM (2010) Early life protein restriction alters dopamine circuitry. Neuroscience 168:359-370
143. Wakschlag LS, Pickett KE, Cook E Jr, Benowitz NL, Leventhal BL (2002) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe antisocial behavior in offspring: a review. Am J Public Health 92:966-974
144. Wang GJ, Chang L, Volkow ND, Telang F, Logan J, Ernst T, Fowler JS (2004) Decreased brain dopaminergic transporters in HIV-associated dementia patients. Brain 127:2452-2458
145. Wang S, Yan JY, Lo YK, Carvey PM, Ling Z (2009) Dopaminergic and serotoninergic deficiencies in young adult rats prenatally exposed to the bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Brain Res 1265:196-204
146. Waterland RA, Jirtle RL (2003) Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation. Mol Cell Biol 23:5293-5300
147. Weber M, Davies JJ, Wittig D, Oakeley EJ, Haase M, Lam WL, Schubeler D (2005) Chromosomewide and promoter-specific analyses identify sites of differential DNA methylation in normal and transformed human cells. Nat Genet 37:853-862
148. Wernicke JF, Faries D, Girod D, Brown J, Gao H, Kelsey D, Quintana H, Lipetz R, Michelson D, Heiligenstein J (2003) Cardiovascular effects of atomoxetine in children, adolescents, and adults. Drug Saf 26:729-740
149. Wilens TE, Hahesy AL, Biederman J, Bredin E, Tanguay S, Kwon A, Faraone SV (2005) Influence of parental SUD and ADHD on ADHD in their offspring: preliminary results from a pilotcontrolled family study. Am J Addict 14:179-187
150. Wilson MJ, Shivapurkar N, Poirier LA (1984) Hypomethylation of hepatic nuclear DNA in rats fed with a carcinogenic methyl-deficient diet. Biochem J 218:987-990
151. Wood AJ, Oakey RJ (2006) Genomic imprinting in mammals: emerging themes and established theories. PLoS Genet 2:e147
152. Wood AC, Rijsdijk F, Saudino KJ, Asherson P, Kuntsi J (2008) High heritability for a composite index of children's activity level measures. Behav Genet 38:266-276
153. Wu H, Coskun V, Tao J, Xie W, Ge W, Yoshikawa K, Li E, Zhang Y, Sun YE (2010) Dnmt3adependent nonpromoter DNA methylation facilitates transcription of neurogenic genes. Science 329:444-448
154. Yano M, Steiner H (2005a) Methylphenidate (Ritalin) induces Homer 1a and zif 268 expression in specific corticostriatal circuits. Neuroscience 132:855-865
155. Yano M, Steiner H (2005b) Topography of methylphenidate (ritalin)-induced gene regulation in the striatum: differential effects on c-fos, substance P and opioid peptides. Neuropsychopharmacology 30:901-915
156. Yin HS, Chen K, Shih JC, Tien TW (2010) Down-regulated GABAergic expression in the olfactory bulb layers of the mouse deficient in monoamine oxidase B and administered with amphetamine. Cell Mol Neurobiol 30:511-519
157. Zhou R, Zhang Z, Zhu Y, Chen L, Sokabe M (2009) Deficits in development of synaptic plasticity in rat dorsal striatum following prenatal and neonatal exposure to low-dose bisphenol A. Neuroscience 159:161-171