Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention defcit/hyperactivity disorder

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 118, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 1654-1667

  Eubig, Paul A ^a   Aguiar, Andréa ^a   Schantz, Susan L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

ADHD; Attention; Executive function; Lead; PCBs

Indexed keywords

4,4' ISOPROPYLIDENEDIPHENOL; AROCLOR; CHLORPYRIFOS; LEAD; PERFLUORO COMPOUND; PESTICIDE; PHTHALIC ACID DERIVATIVE; POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL DERIVATIVE;

ALERTNESS; AMNESIA; ATTENTION; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BEHAVIOR; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BRAIN FUNCTION; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASE MODEL; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HUMAN; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; WORKING MEMORY;

ADOLESCENT; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; CHILD; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION; HUMANS; LEAD; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS; RISK FACTORS;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 78650280341     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: 15529924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901852     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Aguiar A, Eubig PA, Schantz SL. 2010. Attention defcit/hyper-activity disorder: a focused overview for children's environmental health researchers. Environ Health Perspect 118:1646-1653.
2. Alber SA, Strupp BJ. 1996. An in-depth analysis of lead effects in a delayed spatial alternation task: assessment of mnemonic effects, side bias, and proactive interference. Neurotoxicol Teratol 18(1):3-15.
3. American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed., Text Revision. Washington, DC:American Psychiatric Association.
4. Baddeley A. 1986. Working Memory. New York:Oxford University Press.
5. Banerjee TD, Middleton F, Faraone SV. 2007. Environmental risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Paediatr 96(9):1269-1274.
6. Barr DB, Allen R, Olsson AO, Bravo R, Caltabiano LM, Montesano A, et al. 2005. Concentrations of selective metabolites of organophosphorus pesticides in the United States population. Environ Res 99(3):314-326.
7. Bellinger DC. 2008. Very low lead exposures and children's neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Pediatr 20(2):172-177.
8. Berger DF, Lombardo J P, Jeffers PM, Hunt AE, Bush B, Casey A, et al. 2001. Hyperactivity and impulsiveness in rats fed diets supplemented with either Aroclor 1248 or PCB-contaminated St. Lawrence river fish. Behav Brain Res 126(1-2):1-11.
9. Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. 2010. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics 125(6):e1270-e1277.
10. Boucher O, Muckle G, Bastien CH. 2009. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls: a neuropsychologic analysis. Environ Health Perspect 117:7-16.
11. Bowman RE, Heironimus M P, Allen JR. 1978. Correlation of PCB body burden with behavioral toxicology in monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 9(1):49-56.
12. Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, Lanphear BP. 2006. Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention defcit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children. Environ Health Perspect 114:1904-1909.
13. Brennan AR, Arnsten AF. 2008. Neuronal mechanisms underlying attention defcit hyperactivity disorder: the infuence of arousal on prefrontal cortical function. Ann NY Acad Sci 1129:236-245.
14. Brockel BJ, Cory-Slechta DA. 1998. Lead, attention, and impulsive behavior: changes in a fxed-ratio waiting-for-reward paradigm. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 60(2):545-552.
15. Brockel BJ, Cory-Slechta DA. 1999. The effects of postweaning low-level Pb exposure on sustained attention: a study of target densities, stimulus presentation rate, and stimulus predictability. Neurotoxicology 20(6):921-933.
16. Brozoski TJ, Brown RM, Rosvold HE, Goldman PS. 1979. Cognitive deficit caused by regional depletion of dop-amine in prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkey. Science 205(4409):929-932.
17. Bubser M, Schmidt WJ. 1990. 6-Hydroxydopamine lesion of the rat prefrontal cortex increases locomotor activity, impairs acquisition of delayed alternation tasks, but does not affect uninterrupted tasks in the radial maze. Behav Brain Res 37(2):157-168.
18. Bushnell PJ, Bowman RE. 1979a. Persistence of impaired reversal learning in young monkeys exposed to low levels of dietary lead. J Toxicol Environ Health 5(6):1015-1023.
19. Bushnell PJ, Bowman RE. 1979b. Reversal learning deficits in young monkeys exposed to lead. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 10(5):733-742.
20. Bushnell PJ, Moser VC, MacPhail RC, Oshiro WM, Derr-Yellin EC, Phillips PM, et al. 2002. Neurobehavioral assessments of rats perinatally exposed to a commercial mixture of polychlorinated biphenyls. Toxicol Sci 68(1):109-120.
21. Bushnell PJ, Moser VC, Samsam TE. 2001. Comparing cognitive and screening tests for neurotoxicity. Effects of acute chlorpyrifos on visual signal detection and a neurobehavioral test battery in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 23(1):33-44.
22. Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL. 2008. Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-octyl-phenol: 2003-2004. Environ Health Perspect 116:39-44.
23. Canfeld RL, Gendle MH, Cory-Slechta DA. 2004. Impaired neu-ropsychological functioning in lead-exposed children. Dev Neuropsychol 26(1):513-540.
24. Canfield RL, Kreher DA, Cornwell C, Henderson CR Jr. 2003. Low-level lead exposure, executive functioning, and learning in early childhood. Child Neuropsychol 9(1):35-53.
25. Caudle WM, Richardson JR, Delea KC, Guillot TS, Wang M, Pennell KD, et al. 2006. Polychlorinated biphenyl-induced reduction of dopamine transporter expression as a precursor to Parkinson's disease-associated dopamine toxic-ity. Toxicol Sci 92(2):490-499.
26. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2005. Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children. Atlanta, GA:CDC. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/PrevLeadPoisoning.pdf [accessed 20 August 2010].
27. Chiodo LM, Covington C, Sokol RJ, Hannigan JH, Jannise J, Ager J, et al. 2007. Blood lead levels and specifc attention effects in young children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 29(5):538-546.
28. Chiodo LM, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. 2004. Neuro developmental effects of postnatal lead exposure at very low levels. Neurotoxicol Teratol 26(3):359-371.
29. Cohn J, Cox C, Cory-Slechta DA. 1993. The effects of lead exposure on learning in a multiple repeated acquisition and performance schedule. Neurotoxicology 14(2-3):329-346.
30. Cory-Slechta DA. 1990. Exposure duration modifies the effects of low level lead of fixed-interval performance. Neurotoxicology 11(3):427-441.
31. Cory-Slechta DA. 1997. Relationships between PB-induced changes in neurotransmitter system function and behavioral toxicity. Neurotoxicology 18(3):673-688.
32. Cory-Slechta DA. 2003. Lead-induced impairments in complex cognitive function: offerings from experimental studies. Child Neuropsychol 9(1):54-75.
33. Cory-Slechta DA, Bissen ST, Young AM, Thompson T. 1981. Chronic postweaning lead exposure and response duration performance. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 60(1):78-84.
34. Cory-Slechta DA, Pokora MJ. 1991. Behavioral manifestations of prolonged lead exposure initiated at different stages of the life cycle: I. Schedule-controlled responding. Neurotoxicology 12(4):745-760.
35. Cory-Slechta DA, Pokora MJ, Widzowski DV. 1991. Behavioral manifestations of prolonged lead exposure initiated at different stages of the life cycle: II. Delayed spatial alternation. Neurotoxicology 12(4):761-776.
36. Cory-Slechta DA, Thompson T. 1979. Behavioral toxicity of chronic postweaning lead exposure in the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 47(1):151-159.
37. Cory-Slechta DA, Weiss B, Cox C. 1983. Delayed behavioral toxicity of lead with increasing exposure concentration. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 71(3):342-352.
38. Cory-Slechta DA, Weiss B, Cox C. 1985. Performance and exposure indices of rats exposed to low concentrations of lead. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 78(2):291-299.
39. Driscoll LL, Gibson AM, Hieb A. 2009. Chronic postnatal DE-71 exposure: effects on learning, attention and thyroxine levels. Neurotoxicol Teratol 31(2):76-84.
40. Engel SM, Miodovnik A, Canfield RL, Zhu C, Silva MJ, Calafat AM, et al. 2010. Prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with childhood behavior and executive functioning. Environ Health Perspect 118:565-571.
41. Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K, Barr DB, Johnson C, et al. 2007. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environ Health Perspect 115:792-798.
42. Fonnum F, Mariussen E, Reistad T. 2006. Molecular mechanisms involved in the toxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated fame retardants (BFRs). J Toxicol Environ Health A 69(1-2):21-35.
43. Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Auinger P, Hornung R, Epstein JN, Braun J, et al. 2009. Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 124(6):e1054-e1063.
44. Garavan H, Morgan RE, Levitsky DA, Hermer-Vazquez L, Strupp BJ. 2000. Enduring effects of early lead exposure: Evidence for a specifc defcit in associative ability. Neurotoxicol Teratol 22(2):151-164.
45. Gilbert SG, Rice DC. 1987. Low-level lifetime lead exposure produces behavioral toxicity (spatial discrimination reversal) in adult monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 91(3):484-490.
46. Ha M, Kwon HJ, Lim MH, Jee YK, Hong YC, Leem JH, et al. 2009. Low blood levels of lead and mercury and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity in children: a report of the Children's Health and Environment Research (CHEER). Neurotoxicology 30(1):31-36.
47. Hastings L, Zenick H, Succop P, Sun TJ, Sekeres R. 1984. Relationship between hematopoietic parameters and behavioral measures in lead-exposed rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 73(3):416-422.
48. Hauser R, Calafat AM. 2005. Phthalates and human health. Occup Environ Med 62(11):806-818.
49. Hilson JA, Strupp BJ. 1997. Analyses of response patterns clarify lead effects in olfactory reversal and extradimensional shift tasks: assessment of inhibitory control, associative ability, and memory. Behav Neurosci 111(3):532-542.
50. Hoffman K, Webster TF, Weisskopf MG, Weinberg J, Vieira VM. 2010. In press. Exposure to polyfuoroalkyl chemicals and attention defcit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children 12-15 years of age. Environ Health Perspect 118:1762-1767.
51. Holene E, Nafstad I, Skaare JU, Krogh H, Sagvolden T. 1999. Behavioural effects in female rats of postnatal exposure to sub-toxic doses of polychlorinated biphenyl congener 153. Acta Paediatr Suppl 88(429):55-63.
52. Holene E, Nafstad I, Skaare JU, Sagvolden T. 1998. Behavioural hyperactivity in rats following postnatal exposure to sub-toxic doses of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners 153 and 126. Behav Brain Res 94(1):213-224.
53. Izaki Y, Takita M, Akema T. 2008. Specifc role of the posterior dorsal hippocampus-prefrontal cortex in short-term working memory. Eur J Neurosci 27(11):3029-3034.
54. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. 2003. Prenatal exposure to poly-chlorinated biphenyls and attention at school age. J Pediatr 143(6):780-788.
55. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Humphrey HE. 1990. Effects of in utero exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and related contaminants on cognitive functioning in young children. J Pediatr 116(1):38-45.
56. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Padgett RJ, Brumitt GA, Billings RL. 1992. Effects of prenatal PCB exposure on cognitive processing effciency and sustained attention. Dev Psychol 28(2):297-306.
57. Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. 2006. Breast feeding and intelligence in children. BMJ 333(7575):929-930.
58. Jensen AA, Leffers H. 2008. Emerging endocrine disruptors: perfuoroalkylated substances. Int J Androl 31(2):161-169.
59. Jones DC, Miller GW. 2008. The effects of environmental neu-rotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: a possible role in drug addiction. Biochem Pharmacol 76(5):569-581.
60. Jones RL, Homa DM, Meyer PA, Brody PA, Caldwell KC, Pirkle JL, et al. 2009. Trends in blood lead levels and blood lead testing among US children aged 1 to 5 years, 1988- 2004. Pediatrics 123(3):e376-e385.
61. Kim BN, Cho SC, Kim Y, Shin MS, Yoo HJ, Kim JW, et al. 2009. Phthalates exposure and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in school-age children. Biol Psychiatry 66(10):958-963.
62. Kishi R, Ikeda T, Miyake H, Uchino E, Tsuzuki T, Inoue K. 1983. Effects of low lead exposure on neuro-behavioral function in the rat. Arch Environ Health 38(1):25-33.
63. Kordas K, Canfield RL, Lopez P, Rosado JL, Vargas GG, Cebrian ME, et al. 2006. Defcits in cognitive function and achievement in Mexican frst-graders with low blood lead concentrations. Environ Res 100(3):371-386.
64. Kostyniak PJ, Hansen LG, Widholm JJ, Fitzpatrick RD, Olson JR, Helferich JL, et al. 2005. Formulation and characterization of an experimental PCB mixture designed to mimic human exposure from contaminated fsh. Toxicol Sci 88(2):400-411.
65. Lanphear B P, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, et al. 2005. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 113:894-899.
66. Letz R. 1994. NES2 Test User's Manual. Version 6.6. Winchester, MA:Neurobehavioral Systems.
67. Levin ED, Bowman RE. 1986. Long-term lead effects on the Hamilton search task and delayed alternation in monkeys. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 8(3):219-224.
68. Levin ED, Bowman RE. 1988. Long-term effects of chronic postnatal lead exposure on delayed spatial alternation in monkeys. Neurotoxicol Teratol 10(6):505-510.
69. Levin ED, Bowman RE, Wegert S, Vuchetich J. 1987. Psychopharmacological investigations of a lead-induced long-term cognitive defcit in monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 91(3):334-341.
70. Levin ED, Schantz SL, Bowman RE. 1988. Delayed spatial alternation defcits resulting from perinatal PCB exposure in monkeys. Arch Toxicol 62(4):267-273.
71. Lilienthal H, Neuf M, Munoz C, Winneke G. 1990. Behavioral effects of pre- and postnatal exposure to a mixture of low chlorinated PCBs in rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol 15(3):457-467.
72. Longnecker M P, Wolff MS, Gladen BC, Brock JW, Grandjean P, Jacobson JL, et al. 2003. Comparison of polychlorinated biphenyl levels across studies of human neurodevelop-ment. Environ Health Perspect 111:65-70.
73. Marcovitch S, Zelazo PD. 2009. A hierarchical competing systems model of the emergence and early development of executive function. Dev Sci 12(1):1-18.
74. Mariussen E, Fonnum F. 2003. The effect of brominated fame retardants on neurotransmitter uptake into rat brain syn-aptosomes and vesicles. Neurochem Int 43(4-5):533-542.
75. Marks AR, Harley K, Bradman A, Kogut K, Barr DB, Johnson C, et al. 2010. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: The CHAMACOS Study. Environ Health Perspect 118:1768-1774.
76. Mele PC, Bowman RE, Levin ED. 1986. Behavioral evaluation of perinatal PCB exposure in rhesus monkeys: fxed-interval performance and reinforcement-omission. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 8(2):131-138.
77. Mele PC, Bushnell PJ, Bowman RE. 1984. Prolonged behavioral effects of early postnatal lead exposure in rhesus monkeys: fxed-interval responding and interactions with sco-polamine and pentobarbital. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 6(2):129-135.
78. Meyer PA, Brown MJ, Falk H. 2008. Global approach to reducing lead exposure and poisoning. Mutat Res 659(1-2):166-175.
79. Milar KS, Krigman MR, Grant LD. 1981. Effects of neonatal lead exposure on memory in rats. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 3(3):369-373.
80. Min JY, Min KB, Cho SI, Kim R, Sakong J, Paek D. 2007. Neurobehavioral function in children with low blood lead concentrations. Neurotoxicology 28(2):421-425.
81. Minder B, Das-Smaal EA, Brand EF, Orlebeke JF. 1994. Exposure to lead and specific attentional problems in school children. J Learn Disabil 27(6):393-399.
82. Minder B, Das-Smaal EA, Orlebeke JF. 1998. Cognition in children does not suffer from very low lead exposure. J Learn Disabil 31(5):494-502.
83. Monsell S. 2003. Task switching. Trends Cogn Sci 7(3):134-140.
84. Morgan RE, Garavan H, Smith EG, Driscoll LL, Levitsky DA, Strupp BJ. 2001. Early lead exposure produces lasting changes in sustained attention, response initiation, and reactivity to errors. Neurotoxicol Teratol 23(6):519-531.
85. Newland MC, Yezhou S, Logdberg B, Berlin M. 1994. Prolonged behavioral effects of in utero exposure to lead or methyl mercury: reduced sensitivity to changes in reinforcement contingencies during behavioral transitions and in steady state. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 126(1):6-15.
86. Nigg JT. 2006. What Causes ADHD? Understanding What Goes Wrong and Why. New York:Guilford.
87. Nigg JT, Knottnerus GM, Martel MM, Nikolas M, Cavanagh K, Karmaus W, et al. 2008. Low blood lead levels associated with clinically diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol Psychiatry 63(3):325-331.
88. Nigg J, Nikolas M. 2008. Attention-defcit/hyperactivity disorder. In: Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (Beauchaine T P, Hinshaw SP, eds). Hoboken, NJ:John Wiley & Sons, 301.
89. Nigg JT, Nikolas M, Knottnerus GM, Cavanagh K, Friderici K. 2010. Confrmation and extension of association of blood lead with attention-defcit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD symptom domains at population-typical exposure levels. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51(1):58-65.
90. Overmann SR. 1977. Behavioral effects of asymptomatic lead exposure during neonatal development in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 41(3):459-471.
91. Pennington BF, McGrath LM, Rosenberg J, Barnard H, Smith SD, Willcutt EG, et al. 2009. Gene × environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Dev Psychol 45(1):77-89.
92. Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. 2007. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry 164(6):942-948.
93. Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera F P, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB, et al. 2006. Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the frst 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics 118(6):e1845-e1859.
94. Rice DC. 1985a. Chronic low-lead exposure from birth produces defcits in discrimination reversal in monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 77(2):201-210.
95. Rice DC. 1985b. Effect of lead on schedule-controlled behavior in monkeys. In: Behavioral Pharmacology: The Current Status (Seiden LS, Balster RL, eds). New York:Alan R. Liss, 473-486.
96. Rice DC. 1988. Schedule-controlled behavior in infant and juvenile monkeys exposed to lead from birth. Neurotoxicology 9(1):75-87.
97. Rice DC. 1990. Lead-induced behavioral impairment on a spatial discrimination reversal task in monkeys exposed during different periods of development. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 106(2):327-333.
98. Rice DC. 1992. Behavioral effects of lead in monkeys tested during infancy and adulthood. Neurotoxicol Teratol 14(4):235-245.
99. Rice DC. 1993. Lead-induced changes in learning: evidence for behavioral mechanisms from experimental animal studies. Neurotoxicology 14(2-3):167-178.
100. Rice DC. 1996. Behavioral effects of lead: commonalities between experimental and epidemiologic data. Environ Health Perspect 104(suppl 2):337-351.
101. Rice DC. 1997. Effect of postnatal exposure to a PCB mixture in monkeys on multiple fixed interval-fixed ratio performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol 19(6):429-434.
102. Rice DC. 1998. Effects of postnatal exposure of monkeys to a PCB mixture on spatial discrimination reversal and DRL performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol 20(4):391-400.
103. Rice DC. 2000. Parallels between attention defcit hyperactivity disorder and behavioral defcits produced by neurotoxic exposure in monkeys. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):405-408.
104. Rice DC, Gilbert SG. 1985. Low lead exposure from birth produces behavioral toxicity (DRL) in monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 80(3):421-426.
105. Rice DC, Gilbert SG. 1990a. Lack of sensitive period for lead-induced behavioral impairment on a spatial delayed alternation task in monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 103(2):364-373.
106. Rice DC, Gilbert SG. 1990b. Sensitive periods for lead-induced behavioral impairment (nonspatial discrimination reversal) in monkeys. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 102(1):101-109.
107. Rice DC, Gilbert SG, Willes RF. 1979. Neonatal low-level lead exposure in monkeys: Locomotor activity, schedule-controlled behavior, and the effects of amphetamine. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 51(3):503-513.
108. Rice DC, Hayward S. 1997. Effects of postnatal exposure to a PCB mixture in monkeys on nonspatial discrimination reversal and delayed alternation performance. Neurotoxicology 18(2):479-494.
109. Rice DC, Hayward S. 1999. Effects of postnatal exposure of monkeys to a PCB mixture on concurrent random interval-random interval and progressive ratio performance. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21(1):47-58.
110. Rice DC, Karpinski K F. 1988. Lifetime low-level lead exposure produces defcits in delayed alternation in adult monkeys. Neurotoxicol Teratol 10(3):207-214.
111. Rice DC, Willes RF. 1979. Neonatal low-level lead exposure in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis): effect on two-choice non-spatial form discrimination. J Environ Pathol Toxicol 2(4):1195-1203.
112. Richter CA, Birnbaum LS, Farabollini F, Newbold RR, Rubin BS, Talsness CE, et al. 2007. In vivo effects of bisphenol A in laboratory rodent studies. Reprod Toxicol 24(2):199-224.
113. Ris MD, Dietrich KN, Succop PA, Berger OG, Bornschein RL. 2004. Early exposure to lead and neuropsychological outcome in adolescence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10(2):261-270.
114. Robbins TW. 2002. The 5-choice serial reaction time task: behavioural pharmacology and functional neurochemistry. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 163(3-4):362-380.
115. Roy A, Bellinger D, Hu H, Schwartz J, Ettinger AS, Wright RO, et al. 2009. Lead exposure and behavior among young children in Chennai, India. Environ Health Perspect 117:1607-1611.
116. Roze E, Meijer L, Bakker A, Van Braeckel KN, Sauer PJ, Bos AF. 2009 Prenatal exposure to organohalogens, including bro-minated fame retardants, infuences motor, cognitive, and behavioral performance at school age. Environ Health Perspect 117:1953-1958.
117. Sable HJ, Eubig PA, Powers BE, Wang VC, Schantz SL. 2009. Developmental exposure to PCBs and/or MeHg: effects on a differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) oper-ant task before and after amphetamine drug challenge. Neurotoxicol Teratol 31(3):149-158.
118. Sable HJ, Powers BE, Wang VC, Widholm JJ, Schantz SL. 2006. Alterations in DRH and DRL performance in rats devel-opmentally exposed to an environmental PCB mixture. Neurotoxicol Teratol 28(5):548-556.
119. Sable HJK, Schantz SL. 2006. Executive function following developmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): what animal models have told us. In: Animal Models of Cognitive Impairment (Levin ED, Buccafusco JJ, eds). Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press, 147-167.
120. Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM, Korrick SA. 2010. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactiv-ity disorder in school-aged children. Am J Epidemiol 171(5):593-601.
121. Sagvolden T. 2000. Behavioral validation of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of attention-defcit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24(1):31-39.
122. Sagvolden T, Aase H, Zeiner P, Berger D. 1998. Altered reinforcement mechanisms in attention-defcit/hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Res 94(1):61-71.
123. Samsam TE, Hunter DL, Bushnell PJ. 2005. Effects of chronic dietary and repeated acute exposure to chlorpyrifos on learning and sustained attention in rats. Toxicol Sci 87(2):460-468.
124. Schantz SL, Levin ED, Bowman RE, Heironimus M P, Laughlin NK. 1989. Effects of perinatal PCB exposure on discrimination-reversal learning in monkeys. Neurotoxicol Teratol 11(3):243-250.
125. Schantz SL, Moshtaghian J, Ness DK. 1995. Spatial learning deficits in adult rats exposed to ortho-substituted PCB congeners during gestation and lactation. Fundam Appl Toxicol 26(1):117-126.
126. Schantz SL, Seo BW, Wong PW, Pessah IN. 1997. Long-term effects of developmental exposure to 2,2',3,5',6-pentachlo-robiphenyl (PCB 95) on locomotor activity, spatial learning and memory and brain ryanodine binding. Neurotoxicology 18(2):457-467.
127. Seegal RF, Brosch KO, Okoniewski RJ. 1997. Effects of in utero and lactational exposure of the laboratory rat to 2,4,2',4'-and 3,4,3',4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl on dopamine function. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 146(1):95-103.
128. Seegal RF, Bush B, Brosch KO. 1991. Comparison of effects of Aroclors 1016 and 1260 on non-human primate cat-echolamine function. Toxicology 66(2):145-163.
129. Sjodin A, Wong LY, Jones RS, Park A, Zhang Y, Hodge C, et al. 2008. Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) in the United States population: 2003-2004. Environ Sci Technol 42(4):1377-1384.
130. Sloan HL, Good M, Dunnett SB. 2006. Double dissociation between hippocampal and prefrontal lesions on an oper-ant delayed matching task and a water maze reference memory task. Behav Brain Res 171(1):116-126.
131. Smith AK, Mick E, Faraone SV. 2009. Advances in genetic studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 11(2):143-148.
132. Stangle DE, Smith DR, Beaudin SA, Strawderman MS, Levitsky DA, Strupp BJ. 2007. Succimer chelation improves learning, attention, and arousal regulation in lead- exposed rats but produces lasting cognitive impairment in the absence of lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect 115:201-209.
133. Stanton ME, Mundy WR, Ward T, Dulchinos V, Barry CC. 1994. Time-dependent effects of acute chlorpyrifos administration on spatial delayed alternation and cholinergic neuro-chemistry in weanling rats. Neurotoxicology 15(1):201-208.
134. Stewart P, Fitzgerald S, Reihman J, Gump B, Lonky E, Darvill T, et al. 2003. Prenatal PCB exposure, the corpus callosum, and response inhibition. Environ Health Perspect 111:1670-1677.
135. Stewart P, Reihman J, Gump B, Lonky E, Darvill T, Pagano J. 2005. Response inhibition at 8 and 9 1/2 years of age in children prenatally exposed to PCBs. Neurotoxicol Teratol 27(6):771-780.
136. Stewart PW, Lonky E, Reihman J, Pagano J, Gump BB, Darvill T. 2008. The relationship between prenatal PCB exposure and intelligence (IQ) in 9-year-old children. Environ Health Perspect 116:1416-1422.
137. Stewart PW, Sargent DM, Reihman J, Gump BB, Lonky E, Darvill T, et al. 2006. Response inhibition during differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) schedules may be sensitive to low-level polychlorinated biphenyl, methylmercury, and lead exposure in children. Environ Health Perspect 114:1923-1929.
138. Stiles KM, Bellinger DC. 1993. Neuropsychological correlates of low-level lead exposure in school-age children: a prospective study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 15(1):27-35.
139. Surkan PJ, Zhang A, Trachtenberg F, Daniel DB, McKinlay S, Bellinger DC. 2007. Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels < 10 microg/dL. Neurotoxicology 28(6):1170-1177.
140. Swanson JM, Kinsbourne M, Nigg J, Lanphear B, Stefanatos GA, Volkow N, et al. 2007. Etiologic subtypes of attention-defcit/hyperactivity disorder: brain imaging, molecular genetic and environmental factors and the dop-amine hypothesis. Neuropsychol Rev 17(1):39-59.
141. Taylor MM, Crofton KM, MacPhail RC. 2002. Schedule-controlled behavior in rats exposed perinatally to the PCB mixture Aroclor 1254. Neurotoxicol Teratol 24(4):511-518.
142. Vaidya CJ, Stollstorff M. 2008. Cognitive neuroscience of attention defcit hyperactivity disorder: current status and working hypotheses. Dev Disabil Res Rev 14(4):261-267.
143. Vandenberg LN, Chauhoud I, Heindel JJ, Padmanabhan V, Paumgartten FJ, Schoenfelder G. 2010. Urinary, circulating and tissue biomonitoring studies indicate widespread exposure to bisphenol A. Environ Health Perspect 118:1055-1070.
144. Vreugdenhil HJ, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, Boersma ER, Weisglas-Kuperus N. 2002. Effects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. J Pediatr 140(1):48-56.
145. Vreugdenhil HJ, Mulder PG, Emmen HH, Weisglas-Kuperus N. 2004a. Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs on neuropsy-chological functions in the Rotterdam cohort at 9 years of age. Neuropsychology 18(1):185-193.
146. Vreugdenhil HJ, Van Zanten GA, Brocaar M P, Mulder PG, Weisglas-Kuperus N. 2004b. Prenatal exposure to poly-chlorinated biphenyls and breastfeeding: opposing effects on auditory P300 latencies in 9-year-old Dutch children. Dev Med Child Neurol 46(6):398-405.
147. Walkowiak J, Altmann L, Kramer U, Sveinsson K, Turfeld M, Weishoff-Houben M, et al. 1998. Cognitive and sensori-motor functions in 6-year-old children in relation to lead and mercury levels: adjustment for intelligence and contrast sensitivity in computerized testing. Neurotoxicol Teratol 20(5):511-521.
148. Walshaw PD, Alloy LB, Sabb FW. 2010. Executive function in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention-defcit hyperac-tivity disorder: in search of distinct phenotypic profiles. Neuropsychol Rev 20(1):103-120.
149. Wang HL, Chen XT, Yang B, Ma FL, Wang S, Tang ML, et al. 2008. Case-control study of blood lead levels and attention defcit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese children. Environ Health Perspect 116:1401-1406.
150. Widholm JJ, Clarkson GB, Strupp BJ, Crofton KM, Seegal RF, Schantz SL. 2001. Spatial reversal learning in Aroclor 1254-exposed rats: sex-specific deficits in associative ability and inhibitory control. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 174(2):188-198.
151. Widholm JJ, Villareal S, Seegal RF, Schantz SL. 2004. Spatial alternation defcits following developmental exposure to Aroclor 1254 and/or methylmercury in rats. Toxicol Sci 82(2):577-589.
152. Winstanley CA, Eagle DM, Robbins TW. 2006. Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: translation between clinical and preclinical studies. Clin Psychol Rev 26(4):379-395.
153. Zahalka EA, Ellis DH, Goldey ES, Stanton ME, Lau C. 2001. Perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls Aroclor 1016 or 1254 did not alter brain catecholamines nor delayed alternation performance in Long-Evans rats. Brain Res Bull 55(4):487-500.
154. Zenick H, Rodriquez W, Ward J, Elkington B. 1979. Defcits in fixed-interval performance following prenatal and postnatal lead exposure. Dev Psychobiol 12(5):509-514.
155. Zuch CL, O'Mara DJ, Cory-Slechta DA. 1998. Low-level lead exposure selectively enhances dopamine overflow in nucleus accumbens: an in vivo electrochemistry time course assessment. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 150(1):174-185.