A consideration of select pre-trauma factors as key vulnerabilities in PTSD

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 32, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 630-641

  Bomyea, Jessica ^a   Risbrough, Victoria ^b,c   Lang, Ariel J ^b,c  

^a SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b VA SAN DIEGO HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

PTSD; Risk factors; Trauma; Vulnerability factors

Indexed keywords

CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; CATECHOLAMINE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; FK 506 BINDING PROTEIN; FK 506 BINDING PROTEIN 5; GLUCOCORTICOID; SEROTONIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

COGNITION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DNA POLYMORPHISM; EMOTION; FEAR; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HEREDITY; HERITABILITY; HETEROZYGOTE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INTELLIGENCE; MENTAL FUNCTION; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; MENTAL RUMINATION; MENTAL STRESS; MOLECULAR GENETICS; NEGATIVE ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PREDICTION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SELF CONCEPT; THEORETICAL MODEL; THREAT;

HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 84865094859     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: 18737811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.008     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Acheson D.T., Gresack J.E., Risbrough V.B. Hippocampal dysfunction effects on context memory: Possible etiology for posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropharmacology 2012, 62(2):674-685.
2. Afifi T.O., Asmundson G.J.G., Taylor S., Jang K.L. The role of genes and environment on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A review of twin studies. Clinical Psychology Review 2010, 30(1):101-112. 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.002.
3. Amir N., Coles M.E., Foa E.B. Automatic and strategic activation and inhibition of threat-relevant information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2002, 26(5):645-655. 10.1023/A:1020309326976.
4. Amstadter A.B., Nugent N.R., Koenen K.C. Genetics of PTSD: Fear conditioning as a model for future research. Psychiatric Annals 2009, 39(6):358-367. 10.3928/00485713-20090526-01.
5. Ansorge M.S., Zhou M., Lira A., Hen R., Gingrich J.A. Early-life blockade of the 5-HT transporter alters emotional behavior in adult mice. Science 2004, 306(5697):879-881. 10.1126/science.1101678.
6. Beevers C.G., Lee H., Wells T.T., Ellis A.J., Telch M.J. Association of predeployment gaze bias for emotion stimuli with later symptoms of PTSD and depression in soldiers deployed in Iraq. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2011, 168(7):735-741. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 2011.10091309.
7. Brewin C.R., Andrews B., Valentine J.D. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000, 68(5):748-766. 10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.748.
8. Binder E.B. The role of FKBP5, a co-chaperone of the glucocorticoid receptor in the pathogenesis and therapy of affective and anxiety disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009, 34(Suppl. 1):S186-S195. Supplement. 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.05.021.
9. Binder E.B., Bradley R.G., Liu W., Epstein M.P., Deveau T.C., Mercer K.B., et al. Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association 2008, 299(11):1291-1305. 10.1001/jama.299.11.1291.
10. Binder E.B., Salyakina D., Lichtner P., Wochnik G.M., Ising M., Putz B., et al. Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with increased recurrence of depressive episodes and rapid response to antidepressant treatment. Nature Geneics 2004, 36(12):1319-1325.
11. Boeschen L.E., Koss M.P., Figueredo A.J., Coan J.A. Experiential avoidance and post-traumatic stress disorder: A cognitive mediational model of rape recovery. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2001, 4:211-245. 10.1300/J146v04n02_10.
12. Bomyea J., Amir N. Disgust propensity as a predictor of intrusive cognitions following a distressing film. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2012, 36(3):190-198. 10.1007/s10608-010-9331-1.
13. Boscarino J.A. External-cause mortality after psychologic trauma: The effects of stress exposure and predisposition. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2006, 47(6):503-514. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.02.006.
14. Boscarino J.A., Erlich P.M., Hoffman S.N., Rukstalis M., Stewart W.F. Association of FKBP5, COMT and CHRNA5 polymorphisms with PTSD among outpatients at risk for PTSD. Psychiatry Research 2011, 188(1):173-174. 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.03.002.
15. Breedlove S.M., Rosenweig M.R., Watson N.V. Biological Psychology 2007, 496-498. MAUSA, Sunderland. 5th ed.
16. Breslau N., Lucia V.C., Alvarado G.F. Intelligence and other predisposing factors in exposure to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 2006, 63(11):1238-1245. 10.1001/archpsyc.63.11.1238.
17. Brewin C.R. The nature and significance of memory disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2011, 7:203-227. 10.1146/annurev clinpsy-032210-104544.
18. Brewin C.R., Dalgleish T., Joseph S. A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review 1996, 103(4):670-686. 10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.670.
19. Broekman B.F.P., Olff M., Boer F. The genetic background to PTSD. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2007, 31(3):348-362. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.10.001.
20. Bryant R.A., Felmingham K.L., Falconer E.M., Pe Benito L., Dobson-Stone C., Pierce K.D., et al. Preliminary evidence of the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene predicting poor response to cognitive behavior therapy in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 67(12):1217-1219. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.03.016.
21. Bryant R.A., Guthrie R.M. Maladaptive self-appraisals before trauma exposure predict posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2007, 75(5):812-815. 10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.812.
22. Bryant R.A., Salmon K., Sinclair E., Davidson P. A prospective study of appraisals in childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2007, 45(10):2502-2507. 10.1016/j.brat.2007.04.009.
23. Buckley T.C., Blanchard E.B., Neill W.T. Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review 2000, 20(8):1041-1065. 10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00030-6.
24. Chen J., Lipska B.K., Halim N., Ma Q.D., Matsumoto M., Melhem S., et al. Functional analysis of genetic variation in catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT): Effects on mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity in postmortem human brain. American Journal of Human Genetics 2004, 75:807-821.
25. Clohessy S., Ehlers A. PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1999, 38(3):251-265. 10.1348/014466599162836.
26. Conrad C.D. Chronic stress-induced hippocampal vulnerability: The glucocorticoid vulnerability hypothesis. Reviews in the Neurosciences 2008, 19(6):395-411. Retrieved from www.csa.com.
27. Constans J.I. Information-processing biases in PTSD. Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives 2005, 105-129. Guilford Press, New York. J.J. Vasterling, C. Brewin (Eds.).
28. de Vries G., Olff M. The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the netherlands. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2009, 22(4):259-267. 10.1002/jts.20429.
29. Delahanty D.L., Raimonde A.J., Spoonster E. Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biological Psychiatry 2000, 48(9):940-947.
30. Drabant E.M., Hariri A.R., Meyer-Lindenberg A., Munoz K.E., Mattay V.S., Kolachana B.S., et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype and neural Mechanisms related to affective arousal and regulation. Archives of General Psychiatry 2006, 63:1396-1406.
31. Dunmore E., Clark D.M., Ehlers A. Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1999, 37(9):809-829.
32. Dunmore E., Clark D.M., Ehlers A. A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2001, 39(9):1063-1084. 10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00088-7.
33. Ehlers A., Clark D.M. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2000, 38(4):319-345. 10.1016/S00057967(99)00123-0.
34. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., Bryant B. Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1998, 107(3):508-519. 10.1037/0021-843X.107.3.508.
35. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., Bryant B. Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: Results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2003, 41(1):1-10. 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00126-7.
36. Ehring T., Ehlers A., Glucksman E. Do cognitive models help in predicting the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder, phobia, and depression after motor vehicle accidents? A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2008, 76(2):219-230. 10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.219.
37. Ehring T., Fuchs N., Kläsener I. The effects of experimentally induced rumination versus distraction on analogue posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy 2009, 40(4):403-413. 10.1016/j.beth.2008.10.001.
38. Elwood L.S., Hahn K.S., Olatunji B.O., Williams N.L. Cognitive vulnerabilities to the development of PTSD: A review of four vulnerabilities and the proposal of an integrative vulnerability model. Clinical Psychology Review 2009, 29(1):87-100. 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.10.002.
39. Elwood L.S., Williams N.L., Olatunji B.O., Lohr J.M. Interpretation biases in victims and non-victims of interpersonal trauma and their relation to symptom development. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2007, 21(4):554-567. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.08.006.
40. Engelhard I.M., Macklin M.L., McNally R.J., van den Hout M.A., Arntz A. Emotion- and intrusion-based reasoning in vietnam veterans with and without chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2001, 39(11):1339-1348. 10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00101-7.
41. Engelhard I.M., Olatunji B.O., de Jong P.J. Disgust and the development of posttraumatic stress among soldiers deployed to Afghanistan. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2010, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.003.
42. Engle R.W., Tuholski S.W., Laughlin J.E., Conway A.R.A. Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1999, 128(3):309-331. 10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.30.
43. Falconer E., Bryant R., Felmingham K.L., Kemp A.H., Gordon E., Peduto A., et al. The neural networks of inhibitory control in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience 2008, 33(5):413-422. Retrieved from www.csa.com.
44. Falsetti S.A., Resick P.A. Causal attributions, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of crime. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1995, 25(12):1027-1042. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb00615.x.
45. Farnsworth J.K., Sewell K.W. Fear of emotion as a moderator between PTSD and firefighter social interactions. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2011, 24(4):444-450. 10.1002/jts.20657.
46. Feeny N.C., Foa E.B. Cognitive vulnerability to PTSD. Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders 2006, 285-301. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, NJ, US. L.B. Alloy, J.H. Riskind (Eds.).
47. Foa E.B., Steketee G., Rothbaum B.O. Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy 1989, 20(2):155-176. 10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80067-X.
48. Foy D.W., Sipprelle R.C., Rueger D.B., Carroll E.M. Etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in vietnam veterans: Analysis of premilitary, military, and combat exposure influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1984, 52(1):79-87. 10.1037/0022-006X.52.1.79.
49. Gilbertson M.W., Paulus L.A., Williston S.K., Gurvits T.V., Lasko N.B., Pitman R.K., et al. Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2006, 115(3):484-495. 10.1037/0021 843X.115.3.484.
50. Ginzburg K., Solomon Z., Dekel R., Neria Y. Battlefield functioning and chronic PTSD: Associations with perceived self-efficacy and causal attribution. Personality and Individual Differences 2003, 34(3):463-476. 10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00066-1.
51. Grabe H.J., Spitzer C., Schwahn C., Marcinek A., Frahnow A., Barnow S., et al. Serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) promoter polymorphisms and the susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2009, 166(8):926-933. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 2009.08101542.
52. Gray M.J., Pumphrey J.E., Lombardo T.W. The relationship between dispositional pessimistic attributional style versus trauma-specific attributions and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2003, 17(3):289-303. 10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00205-0.
53. Greening L., Stoppelbein L., Docter R. The mediating effects of attributional style and event-specific attributions on postdisaster adjustment. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2002, 26(2):261-274. 10.1023/A:1014530021675.
54. Halligan S.L., Michael T., Clark D.M., Ehlers A. Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003, 71(3):419-431. 10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.419.
55. Handwerger K. Differential patterns of HPA activity and reactivity in adult posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 2009, 17(3):184-205.
56. Harrison P.J., Tunbridge E.M. Catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT): A gene contributing to sex differences in brain function, and to sexual dimorphism in the predisposition to psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33(13):3037-3045. Special Issue: Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase (COMT), Recent Findings. 10.1038/sj.npp.1301543.
57. Heinrichs M., Wagner D., Schoch W., Soravia L.M., Hellhammer D.H., Ehlert U. Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms from pretraumatic risk factors: A 2-year prospective follow-up study in firefighters. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2005, 162(12):2276-2286. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 162.12.2276.
58. Hidalgo R.B., Davidson J.R.T. Posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiology and health-related considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2000, 61:5-13.
59. Homberg J.R., Lesch K. Looking on the bright side of serotonin transporter gene variation. Biological Psychiatry 2011, 69(6):513-519. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.024.
60. Ingram R.E., Price J.M. Understanding psychopathology: The role of vulnerability. Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan 2009, 3-17. Guilford press, New York. 2nd edition. R. Ingram, J.M. Price (Eds.).
61. Inslicht S.S., Otte C., McCaslin S.E., Apfel B.A., Henn-Haase C., Metzler T., et al. Cortisol awakening response prospectively predicts peritraumatic and acute stress reactions in police officers. Biological Psychiatry 2011, 70(11):1055-1062. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.030.
62. Ising M., Depping A., Siebertz A., Lucae S., Unschuld P.G., Kloiber S., et al. Polymorphisms in the FKBP5 gene region modulate recovery from psychosocial stress in healthy controls. European Journal of Neuroscience 2008, 28(2):389-398. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06332.x.
63. Janoff-Bulman R. Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition 1989, 7:113-136. Retrieved from www.csa.co.
64. Joseph S.A., Brewin C.R., Yule W., Williams R.M. Causal attributions and psychiatric symptoms in survivors of the herald of free enterprise disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry 1991, 159:542-546. 10.1192/bjp. 159.4.542.
65. Kaplan Z., Weiser M., Reichenberg A., Rabinowitz J., Caspi A., Bodner E., et al. Motivation to serve in the military influences vulnerability to future posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research 2002, 109(1):45-49. 10.1016/S0165-1781(01)00365-1.
66. Kearney C.A., Wechsler A., Kaur H., Lemos-Miller A. Posttraumatic stress disorder in maltreated youth: A review of contemporary research and thought. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 2010, 13(1):46-76. 10.1007/s10567-009-0061-4.
67. Keogh E., Ayers S., Francis H. Does anxiety sensitivity predict post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth? A preliminary report. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2002, 31(4):145-155. 10.1080/165060702321138546.
68. Kessler R.C., Chiu W.T., Demler O., Walters E.E. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry 2005, 62:617-627.
69. Kessler R.C., Sonnega A., Bromet E., Hughes M., Nelson C.B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 1995, 52:1048-1060.
70. The WHO World Mental Health Surveys: Global perspectives on the epidemiology of mental disorders 2008, 1-580. Cambridge University Press, New York. R.C. Kessler, T.B. Üstün (Eds.).
71. Kiliç E.Z., Kiliç C., Yilmaz S. Is anxiety sensitivity a predictor of PTSD in children and adolescents?. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2008, 65(1):81-86. 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.013.
72. Kilpatrick D.G., Koenen K.C., Ruggiero K.J., Acierno R., Galea S., Resnick H.S., et al. The serotonin transporter genotype and social support and moderation of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in hurricane-exposed adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164(11):1693-1699. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 2007.06122007.
73. Kleim B., Ehlers A., Glucksman E. Early predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in assault survivors. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences 2007, 37(10):1457-1467. 10.1017/S0033291707001006.
74. Koenen K.C. Developmental epidemiology of PTSD: Self-regulation as a central mechanism. The psychobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, US 2006, 255-266. Blackwell Publishing, Malden. R. Yehuda (Ed.).
75. Koenen K.C., Amstadter A.B., Nugent N.R. Gene-environment interaction in posttraumatic stress disorder: An update. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2009, 22(5):416-426. 10.1002/jts.20435.
76. Koenen K.C., Fu Q.J., Ertel K., Lyons M.J., Eisen S.A., True W.R., et al. Common genetic liability to major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder in men. Journal of Affective Disorders 2008, 105(1-3):109-115. 10.1016/j.jad.2007.04.021.
77. Koenen K.C., Moffitt T.E., Poulton R., Martin J., Caspi A. Early childhood factors associated with the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: Results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences 2007, 37(2):181-192. 10.1017/S0033291706009019.
78. Koenen K.C., Nugent N.R., Amstadter A.B. Gene-environment interaction in posttraumatic stress disorder: Review, strategy and new directions for future research. Eur Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2008, 258(2):82-96.
79. Koenen K.C., Uddin M., Chang S.-C., Aiello A.E., Wildman D.E., Goldmann E., et al. SLC6A4 methylation modifies the effect of the number of traumatic events on risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28(8):639-647. 10.1002/da.20872.
80. Kolassa I., Kolassa S., Ertl V., Papassotiropoulos A., De Quervain D.J. The risk of posttraumatic stress disorder after trauma depends on traumatic load and the catechol-methyltransferase polymorphism. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 67(4):304-308. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.10.009.
81. Kremen W.S., Koenen K.C., Boake C., Purcell S., Eisen S.A., Franz C.E., et al. Pretrauma cognitive ability and risk for posttraumatic stress disorder: A twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2007, 64(3):361-368.
82. Lachman H.M., Papolos D.F., Saito T., Yu Y.M., Szumlanski C.L., Weinshilboum R.M. Human catechol-O-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: Description of a functional polymorphism and its potential application to neuropsychiatric disorders. Pharmacogenetics 1996, 6:243-250.
83. Lee H.J., Lee M.S., Kang R.H., Kim H., Kim S.D., Kee B.S., et al. Influence of the serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism on susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 2005, 21(3):135-139.
84. Lesch K.P., Gutknecht L. Pharmacogenetics of the serotonin transporter. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 2005, 29(6):1062-1073. 10.1016/j.pnpbp. 2005.03.012.
85. Leskin L.P., White P.M. Attentional networks reveal executive function deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology 2007, 21(3):275-284. 10.1037/0894-4105.21.3.275.
86. Macklin M.L., Metzger L.J., Litz B.T., McNally R.J., Lasko N.B., Orr S.P., Pitman R.K. Lower precombat intelligence is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1998, 66(2):323-326. 10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.323.
87. Marshall G.N., Schell T.L., Glynn S.M., Shetty V. The role of hyperarousal in the manifestation of posttraumatic psychological distress following injury. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2006, 115(3):624-628. 10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.624.
88. Lonsdorf T.B., Rück C., Bergström J., Andersson G., Öhman A., Lindefors N., et al. The COMTval158met polymorphism is associated with symptom relief during exposure-based cognitive-behavioral treatment in panic disorder. BMC Psychiatry 2010, 10. 10.1186/1471-244X-10-99.
89. Lonsdorf T.B., Weike A.I., Nikamo P., Schalling M., Hamm A.O., Öhman A. Genetic gating of human fear learning and extinction: Possible implications for gene-environment interaction in anxiety disorder. Psychological Science 2009, 20(2):198-206. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02280.x.
90. Marshall G.N., Miles J.N.V., Stewart S.H. Anxiety sensitivity and PTSD symptom severity are reciprocally related: Evidence from a longitudinal study of physical trauma survivors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2010, 119(1):143-150. 10.1037/a0018009.
91. Marx B.P., Doron-LaMarca S., Proctor S.P., Vasterling J.J. The influence of pre-deployment neurocognitive functioning on post-deployment PTSD symptom outcomes among iraq-deployed army soldiers. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2009, 15(6):840-852. 10.1017/S1355617709990488.
92. Mathews A., MacLeod C. Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2005, 1(1):167-195. 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143916.
93. Matsumoto M., Weickert C.S., Akil M., Lipska B.K., Hyde T.M., Herman M.M., et al. Catechol O-methyltransferase mRNA expression in human and rat brain: Evidence for a role in cortical neuronal function. Neuroscience 2003, 116:127-137.
94. Mayou R.A., Ehlers A., Bryant B. Posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents: 3-Year follow-up of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2002, 40(6):665-675. 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00069-9.
95. McCrory E., De Brito S.A., Viding E. Research review: The neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2010, 51(10):1079-1095. 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02271.x.
96. McEwen B.S. Protection and damage from acute and chronic stress: Allostasis and allostatic overload and relevance to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Annals of the NY Academy of Science 2004, 1032(1):1-7.
97. McFarlane A.C., Barton C.A., Yehuda R., Wittert G. Cortisol response to acute trauma and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011, 36(5):720-727.
98. McKeever V.M., Huff M.E. A diathesis-stress model of posttraumatic stress\disorder: Ecological, biological, and residual stress pathways. Review of General Psychology 2003, 7(3):237-250. 10.1037/1089-2680.7.3.237.
99. McNally N.J., Bryant R.A., Ehlers A. Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from post-traumatic stress?. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2003, 4:45-79.
100. McNally R.J., Shin L.M. Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1995, 152(6):936-938. Retrieved from www.csa.com.
101. Meaney M.J., Diorio J., Francis D., Widdowson J., LaPlante P., Caldji C., et al. Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Developmental Neuroscience 1996, 18(1-2):49-72.
102. Meewisse M., Reitsma J.B., De Vries G., Gersons B.P.R., Olff M. Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 191(5):387-392. 10.1192/bjp.bp. 106.024877.
103. Mehta D., Binder E.B. Gene × environment vulnerability factors for PTSD: The HPA-axis. Neuropharmacology 2011, 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.009.
104. Mehta D., Gonik M., Klengel T., Rex-Haffner M., Menke A., Rubel J., et al. Using polymorphisms in FKBP5 to define biologically distinct subtypes of posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence from endocrine and gene expression studies. Archives of General Psychiatry 2011, 68(9):901-910.
105. Meiser-Stedman R., Dalgleish T., Glucksman E., Yule W., Smith P. Maladaptive cognitive appraisals mediate the evolution of posttraumatic stress reactions: A 6-month follow-up of child and adolescent assault and motor vehicle accident survivors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009, 118(4):778-787. 10.1037/a0016945.
106. Mellman T.A., Alim T., Brown D.D., Gorodetsky E., Buzas B., Lawson W.B., et al. Serotonin polymorphisms and posttraumatic stress disorder in a trauma exposed African American population. Depression and Anxiety 2009, 26(11):993-997.
107. Mevissen L., de Jongh A. PTSD and its treatment in people with intellectual disabilities: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review 2010, 30(3):308-316. 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.005.
108. Michael T., Halligan S.L., Clark D.M., Ehlers A. Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 2007, 24:307-317. 10.1002/da.20228.
109. Mikulincer M., Solomon Z. Attributional style and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1988, 97(3):308-313. 10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.308.
110. Milad M.R., Quinn B.T., Pitman R.K., Orr S.P., Fischl B., Rauch S.L. Thickness of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in humans is correlated with extinction memory. PNAS 2005, 102(30):10706-10711.
111. Millan M.J. The neurobiology and control of anxious states. Progress in Neurobiology 2003, 70(2):83-244. 10.1016/S0301-0082(03)00087-X.
112. Ozer E.J., Best S.R., Lipsey T.L., Weiss D.S. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 2003, 129(1):52-73. 10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52.
113. Palker-Corell A., Marcus D.K. Partner abuse, learned helplessness, and trauma symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2004, 23(4):445-462. 10.1521/jscp. 23.4.445.40311.
114. Parslow R.A., Jorm A.F. Pretrauma and posttrauma neurocognitive functioning and PTSD symptoms in a community sample of young adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164(3):509-515. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 164.3.509.
115. Pitman R.K., Orr S.P., Lowenhagen M.J., Macklin M.L. Pre-Vietnam contents of posttraumatic stress disorder veterans' service medical and personnel records. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1991, 32(5):416-422. 10.1016/0010-440X(91)90018-8.
116. Price J.L., Monson C.M., Callahan K., Rodriguez B.F. The role of emotional functioning in military-related PTSD and its treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2006, 20(5):661-674. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2005.04.004.
117. Reardon J.M., Williams N.L. The specificity of cognitive vulnerabilities to emotional disorders: Anxiety sensitivity, looming vulnerability and explanatory style. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2007, 21:625-643. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.09.013.
118. Riskind J.H., Williams N.L., Gessner T.L., Chrosniak L.D., Cortina J.M. The looming maladaptive style: Anxiety, danger, and schematic processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2000, 79(5):837-852. 10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.837.
119. Runyon M.K., Kenny M.C. Relationship of attributional style, depression, and posttrauma distress among children who suffered physical or sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment 2002, 7(3):254-264. 10.1177/1077559502007003007.
120. Salters-Pedneault K., Ruef A.M., Orr S.P. Personality and psychophysiological profiles of police officer and firefighter recruits. Personality and Individual Differences 2010, 49(3):210-215. 10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.037.
121. Sartor C.E., McCutcheon V.V., Pommer N.E., Nelson E.C., Grant J.D., Duncan A.E., et al. Common genetic and environmental contributions to post-traumatic stress disorder and alcohol dependence in young women. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences 2011, 41(7):1497-1505. 10.1017/S0033291710002072.
122. Schweizer S., Dalgleish T. Emotional working memory capacity in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Behaviour Research and Therapy 2011, 49(8):498-504. 10.1016/j.brat.2011.05.007.
123. Shalev A.Y., Videlock E.J., Peleg T., Segman R., Pitman R.K., Yehuda R. Stress hormones and post-traumatic stress disorder in civilian trauma victims: A longitudinal study. Part I: HPA axis responses. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 11(3):365-372.
124. Shenck C.E., Putnam F.W., Noll J.G. Experiential avoidance and the relationship between child maltreatment and PTSD symptoms: Preliminary evidence. Child Abuse and Neglect 2012, 36:118-126. 10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.09.01.
125. Skre I., Onstad S., Torgersen S., Lygren S. A twin study of DSM-III-R anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1993, 88(2):85-92. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1993.tb03419.x.
126. Smith K., Bryant R.A. The generality of cognitive bias in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2000, 38(7):709-715. 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00096-0.
127. Smolka M.N., Schumann G., Wrase J., Grusser S.M., Flor H., Mann K., et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype affects processing of emotional stimuli in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 2005, 25:836-842.
128. Southwick S.M., Rasmusson A., Barron J., Arnsten A. Neurobiological and neurocognitive alterations in PTSD: A focus on norepinephrine, serotonin, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives 2005, 27-58. Guilford Press, New York, NY, US. J.J. Vasterling, C.R. Brewin (Eds.).
129. Steckler T., Risbrough V. Pharmacological treatment of PTSD-Established and new approaches. Neuropharmacology 2012, 62(2):617-627. 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.06.012.
130. Stein M.N., Jang K.L., Taylor S., Vernon P.A., Livesley W.J. Genetic and environmental influences on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disordersymptoms: A twin study. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002, 159:1675-1681.
131. Stein M.B., Kennedy C.M., Twamley E.W. Neuropsychological function in female victims of intimate partner violence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2002, 52(11):1079-1088. 10.1016/S0006 3223(02)01414-2.
132. Stein M.B., Walker J.R., Hazen A.L. Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. American Journal of Psychiatry 1997, 154:1114-1119.
133. Storr C.L., Ialongo N.S., Anthony J.C., Breslau N. Childhood antecedents of exposure to traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164(1):119-125. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 164.1.119.
134. Tarullo A.R., Gunnar M.R. Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior 2006, 50(4):632-639. 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.010.
135. Thakur G.A., Joober R., Brunet A. Development and persistence of posttraumatic stress disorder and the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2009, 22(3):240-243.
136. True W.R., Rice J., Eisen S.A., Dphil A.C.H., Goldberg J., Lyons M.J., et al. A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry 1993, 50:257-264. HPA axis functioning.
137. Tull M.T., Jakupcak M., McFadden M.E., Roemer L. The role of negative affect intensity and the fear of emotions in posttraumatic stress symptom severity among victims of childhood interpersonal violence. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2007, 195(7):580-587. 10.1097/NMD.0b013e318093ed5f.
138. Tunbridge E.M., Harrison P.J., Weinberger D.R. Catechol-o-methyltransferase, cognition, and psychosis: Val1[U+2075][U+2078]Met and beyond. Biological Psychiatry 2006, 60(2):141-151. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.024.
139. Valente N., Vallada H., Cordeiro Q., Bressan R., Andreoli S., Mari J., et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) val158met Polymorphism as a Risk Factor for PTSD After Urban Violence. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience 2011, 43:516-523.
140. van Zuiden M., Geuze E., Willemen H.L.D.M., Vermetten E., Maas M., Amarouchi K., ...Heijnen C.J. Glucocorticoid receptor pathway components predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptom development: A prospective study. Biological Psychiatry 2012, 71(4):309-316. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.026.
141. van Zuiden M., Geuze E., Willemen H.L.D.M., Vermetten E., Maas M., Heijnen C.J., et al. Pre-existing high glucocorticoid receptor number predicting development of posttraumatic stress symptoms after military deployment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2011, 168(1):89-96. 10.1176/appi.ajp. 2010.10050706.
142. van Zuiden M., Kavelaars A., Rademaker A.R., Vermetten E., Heijnen C.J., Geuze E. A prospective study on personality and the cortisol awakening response to predict posttraumatic stress symptoms in response to military deployment. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2011, 45(6):713-719. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.11.013.
143. Vasterling J.J., Brailey K., Constans J.I., Borges A. Assessment of intellectual resources in gulf war veterans: Relationship to PTSD. Assessment 1997, 4(1):51-59. 10.1080/0969594970040104.
144. Vasterling J.J., Duke L.M., Brailey K., Constans J.I., Allain A.N., Sutker P.B. Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons. Neuropsychology 2002, 16(1):5-14. 10.1037/0894-4105.16.1.5.
145. Verwoerd J., Wessel I., de Jong P.J. Individual differences in experiencing intrusive memories: The role of the ability to resist proactive interference. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2009, 40(2):189-201. 10.1016/j.jbtep. 2008.08.002.
146. Verwoerd J., Wessel I., de Jong P.J., Nieuwenhuis M.M.W., Huntjens R.J.C. Pre-stressor interference control and intrusive memories. Cognitive Therapy and Research 2011, 35(2):161-170. 10.1007/s10608-010-9335-x.
147. Wald I., Shechner T., Bitton S., Holoshitz Y., Charney D.S., Muller D., et al. Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28(5):406-411. 10.1002/da.20808.
148. Wessel I., Overwijk S., Verwoerd J., de Vrieze N. Pre-stressor cognitive control is related to intrusive cognition of a stressful film. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2008, 46(4):496-513. 10.1016/j.brat.2008.01.016.
149. Williams N.L., Shahar G., Riskind J.H., Joiner T.E. The looming maladaptive style predicts shared variance in anxiety disorder symptoms: Further support for a cognitive model of vulnerability to anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2005, 19(2):157-175. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.01.003.
150. Xian H., Chantarujikapong S.I., Scherrer J.F., Eisen S.A., Lyons M.J., Goldberg J., et al. Genetic and environmental influences on posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol and drug dependence in twin pairs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2000, 61(1):95-102. 10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00127-7.
151. Xie P., Kranzler H.R., Poling J., Stein M.B., Anton R.F., Brady K., et al. Interactive effect of stressful life events and the serotonin transporter genotype on posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis in 2 independent populations. Archives of General Psychiatry 2009, 66(11):1201-1209. 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.153.
152. Xie P., Kranzler H.R., Poling J., Stein M.B., Anton R.F., Farrer L.A., et al. Interaction of FKBP5 with Childhood Adversity on Risk for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35(8):1684-1692.
153. Yehuda R. Advances in understanding neuroendocrine alterations in PTSD and their therapeutic implications. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 2006, 107:137-166.
154. Yehuda R., Golier J.A., Halligan S.L., Harvey P.D. Learning and memory in holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2004, 55(3):291-295. 10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00641-3.
155. Yehuda R., Cai G., Golier J.A., Sarapas C., Galea S., Ising M., et al. Gene expression patterns associated with posttraumatic stress disorder following exposure to the World Trade Center attacks. Biological Psychiatry 2009, 66(7):708-711.
156. Yehuda R., Keefe R.S.E., Harvey P.D., Levengood R.A. Learning and memory in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1995, 152(1):137-139. Retrieved from www.csa.com.
157. Yehuda R., Schmeidler J., Giller E.L., Siever L.J., Binder-Brynes K. Relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder characteristics of holocaust survivors and their adult offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry 1998, 155:841-843.
158. Yehuda R., Schmeidler J., Wainberg M., Binder-Brynes K., Duvdevani T. Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in adult offspring of holocaust survivors. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1998, 155(9):1163-1171. Retrieved from www.csa.com.
159. Yehuda R., Stavitsky K., Tischler L., Golier J.A., Harvey P.D. Learning and memory in aging trauma survivors with PTSD 2005, 208-229. Guilford Press, New York, NY, US, Retrieved from www.csa.com. J.J. Vasterling, C.R. Brewin (Eds.).
160. Yuan C., Wang Z., Inslicht S.S., McCaslin S.E., Metzler T.J., Henn-Haase C., et al. Protective factors for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in a prospective study of police officers. Psychiatry Research 2011, 188(1):45-50. 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.034.
161. Zetsche U., Ehring T., Ehlers A. The effects of rumination on mood and intrusive memories after exposure to traumatic material: An experimental study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2009, 40(4):499-514. 10.1016/j.jbtep. 2009.07.001.