Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress?

Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Supplement

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2003, Pages

  McNally, Richard J ^a,d   Bryant, Richard A ^b   Ehlers, Anke ^c  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^c KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1642576443     PISSN: 15291006     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1529-1006.01421     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev). Washington, DC: Author.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
4. Amir, M., Weil, G., Kaplan, Z., Tocker, T., & Witztum, E. (1998). Debriefing with brief group psychotherapy in a homogenous [sic] group of non-injured victims of a terrorist attack: A prospective study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 98, 237-242.
5. Andrews, B., Brewin, C.R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: The role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69-73.
6. Artiss, K.L. (1963). Human behavior under stress: From combat to social psychiatry. Military Medicine, 128, 1011-1015.
7. Başoǧlu, M. Livanou, M., & Şalcioǧlu, E. (in press). A single session exposure treatment of traumatic stress in earthquake survivors using an earthquake simulator. American Journal of Psychiatry.
8. Başoǧlu, M., Livanou, M., Şalcioǧlu, E., & Kalender, D. (in press). A brief behavioural treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in earthquake survivors: Results from an open trial. Psychological Medicine.
9. Başoǧlu, M., Mineka, S., Paker, M., Livanou, M., & Gök, Ş. (1997). Psychological preparedness for trauma as a protective factor in survivors of torture. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1421-1433.
10. Bisson, J.I., Jenkins, P.L., Alexander, J., & Bannister, C. (1997). Randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of acute burn trauma. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 78-81.
11. Blanchard, E.B., Hickling, E.J., Forneris, C.A., Taylor, A.E., Buckley, T.C., Loos, W.R., & Jaccard, J. (1997). Prediction of remission of acute posttraumatic stress disorder in motor vehicle accident victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 215-234.
12. Bohl, N. (1995, August). Measuring the effectiveness of CISD: A study. Fire Engineering, 148, 125-126.
13. Bonanno, G.A., & Kaltman, S. (1999). Toward an integrative perspective on bereavement. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 760-776.
14. Bonanno, G.A., Wortman, C.B., Lehman, D.R., Tweed, R.G., Haring, M., Sonnega, J., Carr, D., & Nesse, R.M. (2002). Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A prospective study from preloss to 18-months postloss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1150-1164.
15. Bordow, S., & Porritt, D. (1979). An experimental evaluation of crisis intervention. Social Science and Medicine, 13A, 251-256.
16. Boscarino, J.A. (1995). Post-traumatic stress and associated disorders among Vietnam veterans: The significance of combat exposure and social support. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 317-336.
17. Bracken, P.J., & Petty, C. (Eds.). (1998). Rethinking the trauma of war. London: Free Association Books.
18. Bramsen, I., Dirkzwager, A.J.E., & van der Ploeg, H.M. (2000). Predeployment personality traits and exposure to trauma as predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms: A prospective study of former peacekeepers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1115-1119.
19. Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H.D., Kessler, R.C., & Davis, G.C. (1999). Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: Results from the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 902-907.
20. Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H.D., Kessler, R.C., Peterson, E.L., & Lucia, V.C. (1999). Vulnerability to assaultive violence: Further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29, 813-821.
21. Breslau, N., Davis, G.C., & Andreski, P. (1995). Risk factors for PTSD-related traumatic events: A prospective analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 529-535.
22. Breslau, N., Davis, G.C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216-222.
23. Brewin, C.R. (2001). Cognitive and emotional reactions to traumatic events: Implications for short-term interventions. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 17, 160-196.
24. Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B., & Rose, S. (2003). Diagnostic overlap between acute stress disorder and PTSD in victims of violent crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 783-785.
25. Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (1999). Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of violent crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 360-366.
26. Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J.D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-766.
27. Brewin, C.R., Rose, S., Andrews, B., Green, J., Tata, P., McEvedy, C., Turner, S., & Foa, E.B. (2002). Brief screening instrument for post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 158-162.
28. Bryant, R.A. (2000). Cognitive behavior therapy of violence-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 79-97.
29. Bryant, R.A., Guthrie, R.M., & Moulds, M.L. (2001). Hypnotizability in acute stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 600-604.
30. Bryant, R.A., & Harvey, A.G. (1998). Relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 625-629.
31. Bryant, R.A., & Harvey, A.G. (2000a). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
32. Bryant, R.A., & Harvey, A.G. (2000b). New DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1889-1890.
33. Bryant, R.A., & Harvey, A.G. (2003). Gender differences in the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 226-229.
34. Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Dang, S.T., Sackville, T., & Basten, C. (1998). Treatment of acute stress disorder: A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 862-866.
35. Bryant, R.A., Moulds, M.L., Guthrie, R.M., & Nixon, R.D.V. (2003). Treating acute stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 585-587.
36. Bryant, R.A., Moulds, M.L., Guthrie, R.M., & Nixon, R.D.V. (in press). The additive benefit of hypnosis and cognitive behavior therapy in treating acute stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
37. Bryant, R.A., Moulds, M.L., & Nixon, R.D.V. (2003). Cognitive therapy of acute stress disorder: A four-year follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 489-494.
38. Bryant, R.A., Sackville, T., Dang, S.T., Moulds, M., & Guthrie, R. (1999). Treating acute stress disorder: An evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1780-1786.
39. Bunn, T.A., & Clarke, A.M. (1979). Crisis intervention: An experimental study of the effects of a brief period of counselling on the anxiety of relatives of seriously injured or ill hospital patients. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52, 191-195.
40. Busuttil, W., Turnbull, G.J., Neal, L.A., Rollins, J., West, A.G., Blanch, N., & Herepath, R. (1995). Incorporating psychological debriefing techniques within a brief group psychotherapy programme for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 495-502.
41. Butler, L.D., Duran, R.E.F., Jasiukaitis, P., Koopman, C., & Spiegel, D. (1996). Hypnotizability and traumatic experience: A diathesis-stress model of dissociative symptomatology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7, Suppl. 78), 42-63.
42. Campfield, K.M., & Hills, A.M. (2001). Effect of timing of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) on posttraumatic symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 327-340.
43. Carlier, I.V.E., Lamberts, R.D., van Uchelen, A.J., & Gersons, B.P.R. (1998). Disaster-related post-traumatic stress in police officers: A field study of the impact of debriefing. Stress Medicine, 14, 143-148.
44. Carlier, I.V.E., Voerman, A.E., & Gersons, B.P.R. (2000). The influence of occupational debriefing on post-traumatic stress symptomatology in traumatized police officers. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 87-98.
45. Chemtob, C.M., Tomas, S., Law, W., & Cremniter, D. (1997). Postdisaster psychosocial intervention: A field study of the impact of debriefing on psychological distress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 415-417.
46. Conlon, L., Fahy, T.J., & Conroy, R. (1999). PTSD in ambulant RTA victims: A randomized controlled trial of debriefing. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46, 37-44.
47. Creamer, M.C., O'Donnell, M.L., & Pattison, P. (in press). The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in severely injured trauma survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy.
48. Dancu, C.V., Riggs, D.S., Hearst-Ikeda, D., Shoyer, B.G., & Foa, E.B. (1996). Dissociative experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder among female victims of criminal assault and rape. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 253-267.
49. Deahl, M. (2000). Psychological debriefing: Controversy and challenge. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 929-939.
50. Deahl, M., Srinivasan, M., Jones, N., Thomas, J., Neblett, C., & Jolly, A. (2000). Preventing psychological trauma in soldiers: The role of operational stress training and psychological debriefing. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 77-85.
51. Delahanty, D.L., Herberman, H.B., Craig, K.J., Hayward, M.C., Fullerton, C.S., Ursano, R.J., & Baum, A. (1997). Acute and chronic distress and posttraumatic stress disorder as a function of responsibility for serious motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 560-567.
52. DeLisi, L.E., Maurizio, A., Yost, M., Papparozzi, C.F., Fulchino, C., Katz, C.L., Altesman, J., Biel, M., Lee, J., & Stevens, P. (2003). A survey of New Yorkers after the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 780-783.
53. Difede, J., Ptacek, J.T., Roberts, J.G., Barocas, D., Rives, W., Apfeldorf, W.J., & Yurt, R. (2002). Acute stress disorder after burn injury: A predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 826-834.
54. Dunmore, E., Clark, D.M., & Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 809-829.
55. Dunmore, E., Clark, D.M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after physical and sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1063-1084.
56. Echeburua, E., de Corral, P., Sarasua, B., & Zubizarreta, I. (1996). Treatment of acute posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: An experimental study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 185-199.
57. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
58. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M. (2003). Early psychological interventions for adult survivors of trauma: A review. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 817-826.
59. Ehlers, A., Clark, D.M., Hackmann, A., McManus, P., Fennell, M., Herbert, C., & Mayou, R.A. (in press). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, self-help, and repeated assessment as early interventions for PTSD. Archives of General Psychiatry.
60. Ehlers, A., Mayou, R.A., & Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 508-519.
61. Engelhard, I.M., van den Hout, M.A., Arntz, A., & McNally, R.J. (2002). A longitudinal study of "intrusion-based reasoning" and posttraumatic stress disorder after exposure to a train disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1415-1424.
62. Everly, G.S., Jr., Boyle, S.H., & Lating, J.M. (1999). The effectiveness of psychological debriefing with vicarious trauma: A meta-analysis. Stress Medicine, 15, 229-233.
63. Everly, G.S., Jr., Flannery, R.B., Jr., & Eyler, V.A. (2002). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): A statistical review of the literature. Psychiatric Quarterly, 73, 171-182.
64. Everly, G.S., Jr., & Mitchell, J.T. (1999). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): A new era and standard of care in crisis intervention (2nd ed.). Ellicott City, MD: Chevron.
65. Flannery, R.B., Jr. (1999). Critical Incident Stress Management and the Assaulted Staff Action Program. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 2, 103-108.
66. Flannery, R.B., Jr. (2001). The Assaulted Staff Action Program (ASAP): Ten year empirical support for Critical Incident Stress Management (CISD). International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 3, 5-10.
67. Flannery, R.B., Jr., Fulton, P., Tausch, J., & DeLoffi, A.Y. (1991). A program to help staff cope with psychological sequelae of assaults by patients. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42, 935-938.
68. Flannery, R.B., Jr., Hanson, M.A., Penk, W.E., Flannery, G.J., & Gallagher, C. (1995). The Assaulted Staff Action Program: An approach to coping with the aftermath of violence in the workplace. In L.R. Murphy, J.L. Hurrell, Jr., S.L. Sauter, & G.P. Keita (Eds.), Job stress interventions (pp. 199-212). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
69. Flannery, R.B., Jr., Hanson, M.A., Penk, W.E., Goldfinger, S., Pastva, G.J., & Navon, M.A. (1998). Replicated declines in assault rates after implementation of the Assaulted Staff Action Program. Psychiatric Services, 49, 241-243.
70. Flannery, R.B., Jr., Penk, W.E., & Corrigan, M. (1999). The Assaulted Staff Action Program (ASAP) and declines in the prevalence of assaults: Community-based replication. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 1, 19-21.
71. Flannery, R.B., Jr., Stone, P., Rego, S., & Walker, A.P. (2001). Characteristics of staff victims of patient assault: Ten year analysis of the Assaulted Staff Action Program (ASAP). Psychiatric Quarterly, 72, 237-248.
72. Foa, E.B. (2001). Guidelines for response to the recent tragic events in the US. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
73. Foa, E.B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D.M., Tolin, D.F., & Orsillo, S.M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303-314.
74. Foa, E.B., Hearst-Ikeda, D., & Perry, K.J. (1995). Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of chronic PTSD in recent assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 948-955.
75. Foa, E.B., & Meadows, E.A. (1997). Psychosocial treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 449-480.
76. Foa, E.B., & Rothbaum, B.O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
77. Foa, E.B., Zoellner, L.A., & Feeny, N.C. (2002). An evaluation of three brief programs for facilitating recovery. Manuscript submitted for publication.
78. Frank, E., Anderson, B., Stewart, B.D., Dancu, C., Hughes, C., & West, D. (1988). Efficacy of behavior therapy and systematic desensitization in the treatment of rape trauma. Behavior Therapy, 19, 479-489.
79. Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982-987.
80. Galea, S., Boscarino, J., Resnick, H., & Vlahov, D. (in press). Mental health in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks: Results from two population surveys. In R.W. Manderscheid & M.J. Henderson (Eds.), Mental health, United States, 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print Office.
81. Gidron, Y., Gal., R., Freedman, S., Twiser, I., Lauden, A., Snir, Y., & Benjamin, J. (2001). Translating research findings to PTSD prevention: Results of a randomized-controlled pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 773-780.
82. Giller, J. (1998). Caring for "victims of torture" in Uganda: Some personal reflections. In P.J. Bracken & C. Petty (Eds.), Rethinking the trauma of war (pp. 128-145). London: Free Association Books.
83. Gillespie, K., Duffy, M., Hackmann, A., & Clark, D.M. (2002). Community based cognitive therapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder following the Omagh bomb. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 345-357.
84. Ginzburg, K., Solomon, Z., & Bleich, A. (2002). Repressive coping style, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder after myocardial infarction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 748-757.
85. Gist, R., & Devilly, G.J. (2002). Post-trauma debriefing: The road too frequently travelled. Lancet, 360, 741-742.
86. Gist, R., & Lubin, B. (Eds.). (1999). Response to disaster Psychosocial, community, and ecological approaches. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel.
87. Gist, R., Woodall, S.J., & Magenheimer, L.K. (1999). "And then you do the Hokey-Pokey and you turn yourself around." In R. Gist & B. Lubin (Eds.), Response to disaster: Psychosocial, community, and ecological approaches (pp. 269-290). Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel.
88. Gittrich, G. (2003, May 27). $90 million in Project Liberty mental health funds remains unspent. New York Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/05-27-2003/front/story/87199p-79357c.html
89. Goode, E. (2001, September 16). Some therapists fear services could backfire. The New York Times, p. 21.
90. Halligan, S., Michael, T., Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 419-431.
91. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (1998a). The effect of attempted thought suppression in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 583-590.
92. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (1998b). The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective evaluation of motor vehicle accident survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 507-512.
93. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (1999). The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A 2-year prospective evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 985-988.
94. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (2000a). Memory for acute stress disorder symptoms: A two-year prospective study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188, 602-607.
95. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (2000b). Two-year prospective evaluation of the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 626-628.
96. Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (2002). Acute stress disorder: A synthesis and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 886-902.
97. Herbert, J.D., Lilienfeld, S., Kline, J., Montgomery, R., Lohr, J., Brandsma, L., Meadows, E., Jacobs, W.J., Goldstein, N., Gist, R., McNally, R.J., Acierno, R., Harris, M., Devilly, G.J., Bryant, R., Eisman, H.D., Kleinknecht, R., Rosen, G.M., & Foa, E. (2001). Psychology's response: Primum non nocere. Monitor on Psychology, 32(11), 4.
98. Hobbs, M., Mayou, R., Harrison, B., & Worlock, P. (1996). A randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. British Medical Journal, 313, 1438-1439.
99. Holeva, V., Tarder, N., & Wells, A. (2001). Prevalence and predictors of acute stress disorder and PTSD following road traffic accidents: Thought control strategies and social support. Behavior Therapy, 32, 65-83.
100. Horowitz, M.J. (1986). Stress response syndromes: PTSD, grief, and adjustment disorders. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
101. Hytten, K., & Hasle, A. (1989). Fire fighters: A study of stress and coping. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80(Suppl. 355), 50-55.
102. Jenkins, S.R. (1996). Social support and debriefing efficacy among emergency medical workers after a mass shooting incident. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 477-492.
103. Kadet, A. (2002, June). Good grief! Smart Money, 11, 109-114.
104. Kangas, M., Henry, J.L., & Bryant, R.A. (in press). The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following cancer. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
105. Kaplan, Z., Weiser, M., Reichenberg, A., Rabinowitz, J., Caspi, A., Bodner, E., & Zohar, J. (2002). Motivation to serve in the military influences vulnerability to future posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 109, 45-49.
106. Keane, T.M., Kaufman, M.L., & Kimble, M.O. (2001). Peritraumatic dissociative symptoms, acute stress disorder, and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: Causation, correlation or epiphenomena. In L. Sanchez-Planell & C. Diez-Quevedo (Eds.), Dissociative states (pp. 21-43). Barcelona, Spain: Springer-Verlag.
107. Keane, T.M., Scott, W.O., Chavoya, G.A., Lamparski, D.M., & Fairbank, J. (1985). Social support in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A comparative analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 95-102.
108. Kenardy, J.A., Webster, R.A., Lewin, T.J., Carr, V.J., Hazell, P.L., & Carter, G.L. (1996). Stress debriefing and patterns of recovery following a natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 37-49.
109. Kessler, R.C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C.B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
110. King, D.W., King, L.A., Foy, D.W., & Gudanowski, D.M. (1996). Prewar factors in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Structural equation modeling with a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 520-531.
111. Koopman, C., Classen, C., Cardeña, E., & Spiegel, D. (1995). When disaster strikes, acute stress disorder may follow. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 29-46.
112. Koopman, C., Classen, C., & Spiegel, D. (1994). Predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms among survivors of the Oakland/Berkeley, Calif., firestorm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 888-894.
113. Koren, D., Arnon, I., & Klein, E. (1999). Acute stress response and posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A one-year prospective, follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 367-373.
114. Lange, A., van de Ven, J.-P., Schrieken, B., & Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (2001). Interapy: Treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet: A controlled trial. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 32, 73-90.
115. Lavender, T., & Walkinshaw, S.A. (1998). Can midwives reduce postpartum psychological morbidity? A randomized trial. Birth, 25, 215-219.
116. Lee, C., Slade, P., & Lygo, V. (1996). The influence of psychological debriefing on emotional adaptation in women following early miscarriage: A preliminary study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 69, 47-58.
117. Leeman-Conley, M. (1990, April/May). After a violent robbery .... Criminology Australia, 1, 4-6.
118. Litz, B.T., Gray, M.J., Bryant, R.A., & Adler, A.B. (2002). Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 112-134.
119. Macklin, M.L., Metzger, L.J., Litz, B.T., McNally, R.J., Lasko, N.B., Orr, S.P., & Pitman, R.K. (1998). Lower pre-combat intelligence is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 323-326.
120. Marshall, G.N., & Schell, T.L. (2002). Reappraising the link between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD symptom severity: Evidence from a longitudinal study of community violence survivors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 626-636.
121. Marshall, R.D., Spitzer, R., & Liebowitz, M. (2000). Dr. Marshall and colleagues reply. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1890-1891.
122. Marshall, R.D., Spitzer, R., & Liebowitz, M.R. (1999). Review and critique of the new DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1677-1685.
123. Mayou, R.A., Ehlers, A., & Hobbs, M. (2000). Psychological debriefing for road traffic accidents: Three-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 589-593.
124. McDonald, J.J., Jr. (2003). Posttraumatic stress dishonesty. Employee Relations Law Journal, 28, 93-111.
125. McFarlane, A.C. (1989). The aetiology of post-traumatic morbidity: Predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 221-228.
126. McNally, R.J., & Shin, L.M. (1995). Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 936-938.
127. Meichenbaum, D. (1994). A clinical handbook/practical therapist manual for assessing and treating adults with post-traumatic stress disorder. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Institute Press.
128. Mitchell, J.T. (1983). When disaster strikes ... The Critical Incident Stress Debriefing process. Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 8, 36-39.
129. Mitchell, J.T. (2002, November 11). CISM research summary. Retrieved from http://www.icisf.org/articles/cism_research_summary.pdf
130. Mitchell, J.T., & Everly, G.S., Jr. (2001). Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: An operations manual for CISD, defusing and other group crisis intervention services (3rd ed.). Ellicott City, MD: Chevron.
131. Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R.A. (2002). Dissociation and post-traumatic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of road traffic accident survivors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 363-368.
132. Nishith, P., Mechanic, M.B., & Resick, P.A. (2000). Prior interpersonal trauma: The contribution to current PTSD symptoms in female rape victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 20-25.
133. North, C.S., Tivis, L., McMillen, J.C., Pfefferbaum, B., Spitznagel, E.L., Cox, J., Nixon, S., Bunch, K.P., & Smith, E.M. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 857-859.
134. Noyes, R., Jr., & Kletti, R. (1976). Depersonalization in the face of life-threatening danger: A description. Psychiatry, 39, 19-27.
135. Noyes, R., Jr., & Kletti, R. (1977). Depersonalization in response to life-threatening danger. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 18, 375-384.
136. Nurmi, L.A. (1999). The sinking of the Estonia: The effects of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) on rescuers. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 1, 23-31.
137. O'Donnell, M.L., Creamer, M.C., Pattison, P., & Atkin, C. (2001, December). Traumatic injury: Psychological consequences and their predictors. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, New Orleans, LA.
138. Orner, R.J., & Schnyder, U. (Eds.), (in press). Reconstructing early intervention after trauma innovations in the care of survivors. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
139. Öst, L.-G., Paunovic, N., & Gillow, E.-M. (2002). Cognitive-behavior therapy in the prevention of chronic PTSD in crime victims. Manuscript submitted for publication.
140. Ostrow, L.S. (1996). Critical Incident Stress Management: Is it worth it? Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 21(8), 28-36.
141. Ozer, E.J., Best, S.R., Lipsey, T.L., & Weiss, D.S. (2003). Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-73.
142. Pennebaker, J.W. (2001). Dealing with a traumatic experience immediately after it occurs. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 17, 160-162.
143. Pennebaker, J.W., & Beall, S.K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 274-281.
144. Pennebaker, J.W., & Harber, K.D. (1993). A social stage model for collective coping: The Loma Prieta earthquake and the Persian Gulf War. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 125-146.
145. Perry, S., Difede, J., Musngi, G., Frances, A.J., & Jacobsberg, L. (1992). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 931-935.
146. Pitman, R.K., Orr, S.P, Lowenhagen, M.J., Macklin, M.L., & Altman, B. (1991). Pre-Vietnam contents of posttraumatic stress disorder veterans' service medical and personnel records. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 32, 416-422.
147. Rachman, S. (2001). Emotional processing, with special reference to post-traumatic stress disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 13, 164-171.
148. Raphael, B., & Dobson, M. (2001). Acute posttraumatic interventions. In J.P. Wilson & M.J. Friedman (Eds.), Treating psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 139-158). New York: Guilford Press.
149. Raphael, B., Wilson, J., Meldrum, L., & McFarlane, A.C. (1996). Acute preventative interventions. In B.A. van der Kolk, A.C. McFarlane, & L. Weisæth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 463-479). New York: Guilford Press.
150. Raphael, B., & Wilson, J.P. (Eds.). (2000). Psychological debriefing: Theory, practice and evidence. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
151. Richards, D. (2001). A field study of critical incident stress debriefing versus critical incident stress management. Journal of Mental Health, 10, 351-362.
152. Riggs, D.S., Rothbaum, B.O., & Foa, E.B. (1995). A prospective examination of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of nonsexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 201-214.
153. Rose, S., Bisson, J., & Wessely, S. (2001). Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Cochrane Library, Issue 3). Oxford, England: Update Software.
154. Rose, S., Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B., & Kirk, M. (1999). A randomized controlled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychological Medicine, 29, 793-799.
155. Rothbaum, B.O., Foa, E.B., Riggs, D.S., Murdock, T., & Walsh, W. (1992). A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455-475.
156. Schnurr, P.P., Friedman, M.J., & Rosenberg, S.D. (1993). Premilitary MMPI scores as predictors of combat-related PTSD symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 479-483.
157. Schnyder, U., & Moergeli, H. (in press). The course and development of early reactions to traumatic events: Baseline evidence from a nonintervention follow-up study. In R.J. Orner & U. Schnyder (Eds.), Reconstructing early intervention after trauma: Innovations in the care of survivors. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
158. Schnyder, U., Moergeli, H., Klaghofer, R., & Buddeberg, C. (2001). Incidence and prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in severely injured accident victims. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 594-599.
159. Schuster, M.A., Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L.H., Collins, R.L., Marshall, G.N., Elliott, M.N., Zhou, A.J., Kanouse, D.E., Morrison, J.L., & Berry, S.H. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1507-1512.
160. Schwarz, E.E., Kowalski, J.M., & McNally, R.J. (1993). Malignant
161. Shalev, A.Y. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder among injured survivors of a terrorist attack: Predictive value of early intrusion and avoidance symptoms. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 505-509.
162. Shalev, A.Y. (2000). Stress management and debriefing: Historical concepts and present patterns. In B. Raphael & J.P. Wilson (Eds.), Psychological debriefing: Theory, practice and evidence (pp. 17-31). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
163. Shalev, A.Y., Freedman, S., Peri, T., Brandes, D., & Sahar, T. (1997). Predicting PTSD in trauma survivors: Prospective evaluation of self-report and clinician-administered instruments. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 558-564.
164. Shalev, A.Y., Freedman, S., Peri, T., Brandes, D., Sahar, T., Orr, S.P., & Pitman, R.K. (1998). Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 630-637.
165. Shalev, A.Y., Peri, T., Canetti, L., & Schreiber, S. (1996). Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 219-225.
166. Shalev, A.Y., Peri, T., Rogel-Fuchs, Y., Ursano, R., & Marlowe, D. (1998). Historical group debriefing after combat exposure. Military Medicine, 163, 494-498.
167. Silva, R.R., Alpert, M., Munoz, D.M., Singh, S., Matzner, F., & Dummitt, S. (2000). Stress and vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1229-1235.
168. Small, R., Lumley, J., Donohue, L., Potter, A., & Waldenstrom, U. (2000). Randomised controlled trial of midwife led debriefing to reduce maternal depression after operative childbirth. British Medical Journal, 321, 1043-1047.
169. Smith, K., & Bryant, R.A. (2000). The generality of cognitive bias in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 709-715.
170. Solomon, Z., & Benbenishty, R. (1986). The role of proximity, immediacy, and expectancy in frontline treatment of combat stress reaction among Israelis in the Lebanon War. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 613-617.
171. Solomon, Z., Laor, N., & McFarlane, A.C. (1996). Acute posttraumatic reactions in soldiers and civilians. In B.A. van der Kolk, A.C. McFarlane, & L. Weisæth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 102-114). New York: Guilford Press.
172. Southwick, S.M., Morgan, C.A., Nicolaou, A.L., & Charney, D.S. (1997). Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 173-177.
173. Spiegel, D. (1996). Dissociative disorders. In R.E. Hales & S.C. Yudofsky (Eds.), Synopsis of psychiatry (pp. 583-604). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
174. Spiegel, D., & Cardeña, E. (1991). Disintegrated experience: The dissociative disorders revisited. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 366-378.
175. Spiegel, D., Classen, C., & Cardeña, E. (2000). New DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1890.
176. Staab, J.P., Grieger, T.A., Fullerton, C.S., & Ursano, R.J. (1996). Acute stress disorder, subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a series of typhoons. Anxiety, 2, 219-225.
177. Stallard, P., & Law, F. (1993). Screening and psychological debriefing of adolescent survivors of life: Threatening events. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 660-665.
178. Stroebe, M., Stroebe, W., Schut, H., Zech, E., & van den Bout, J. (2002). Does disclosure of emotions facilitate recovery from bereavement? Evidence from two prospective studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 169-178.
179. Ursano, R.J., Grieger, T.A., & McCarroll, J.E. (1996). Prevention of posttraumatic stress: Consultation, training, and early treatment. In B.A. van der Kolk, A.C. McFarlane, & L. Weisæth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 441-462). New York: Guilford Press.
180. van der Kolk, B.A., & van der Hart, O. (1989). Pierre Janet and the breakdown of adaptation in psychological trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1530-1540.
181. van Emmerik, A.A.P., Kamphuis, J.H., Hulsbosch, A.M., & Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: A meta-analysis. Lancet, 360, 766-771.
182. Vasterling, J.J., Brailey, K., Constans, J.I., Borges, A., & Sutker, P.B. (1997). Assessment of intellectual resources in Gulf War veterans: Relationship to PTSD. Assessment, 1, 51-59.
183. Vasterling, J.J., Duke, L.M., Brailey, K., Constans, J.I., Allain, A.N., Jr., & Sutker, P.B. (2002). Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons. Neuropsychology, 16, 5-14.
184. Veronen, L.J., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (1983). Stress management for rape victims. In D. Meichenbaum & M.E. Jaremko (Eds.), Stress reduction and prevention (pp. 341-374). New York: Plenum.
185. Wakefield, J.C. (1992). The concept of mental disorder: On the boundary between biological facts and social values. American Psychologist, 47, 373-388.
186. Wakefield, J.C. (1996). DSM-IV: Are we making diagnostic progress? Contemporary Psychology, 41, 646-652.
187. Wakefield, J.C., & Spitzer, R.L. (2002). Lowered estimates - but of what? Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 129-130.
188. Warda, G., & Bryant, R.A. (1998). Cognitive bias in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 1177-1183.
189. Wee, D.F., Mills, D.M., & Koehler, G. (1999). The effects of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) on emergency medical services personnel following the Los Angeles civil disturbance. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 1, 33-37.
190. Wortman, C.B., & Silver, R.C. (1989). The myths of coping with loss. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 349-357.
191. Yehuda, R. (Ed.). (1999). Risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
192. Yehuda, R. (2002a, March). The lessons of 9-11. Address delivered at the annual meeting of the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, Austin, TX.
193. Yehuda, R. (2002b). Post-traumatic stress disorder. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 108-114.
194. Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A.C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1705-1713.
195. Yule, W. (1992). Post-traumatic stress disorder in child survivors of shipping disasters: The sinking of the "Jupiter." Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 57, 200-205.